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Men of Ideas: The Ideas of Quine - Bryan Magee & Quine (1978)

节目发布 2023-06-25 · Bitesize Philosophy
威拉德·冯·奥曼·蒯因 布莱恩·马基
本期追问 · 点击跳到视频对应位置
24:28 什么是「真实」?29:48 语言还承载意义吗?16:20 人有自由意志吗?2:31 知识从哪里来?
归入 Ⅰ·01 什么是「真实」? →
EDITED TRANSCRIPT · 依据现场录音编译整理,可划线生成便签
编者按:本文为英国广播公司(BBC)1978年《思想者》(Men of Ideas)系列节目中的一期,由哲学家、广播人布莱恩·马基(Bryan Magee)主持,对谈嘉宾是哈佛大学哲学教授威拉德·范·奥曼·蒯因(W. V. O. Quine)。蒯因生于1908年,是二十世纪分析哲学最重要的人物之一,以逻辑学的原创贡献成名,晚年转向更广义的哲学问题。谈话围绕哲学的核心任务、物理主义、行为主义、抽象对象与意义理论等展开。本文依据现场录音编译整理,仅删去口语枝节,论证与例证悉数保留。

谁是最重要的在世哲学家

马基:假如在职业哲学教师中间做一次投票,问谁是当今最重要的在世哲学家,我至少不敢肯定谁会得票最多。但有几个名字,几乎可以确定会进入前六位。其中第一个,也是我愿意押很短赔率的一个,就是威拉德·范·奥曼·蒯因,哈佛大学的哲学教授。

蒯因生于1908年,至今仍高产不辍,所以他的学术生涯很长,而且远未结束。他发表过数不清的论文,出版了十几部著作,最有名的是1953年的《从逻辑的观点看》(From a Logical Point of View)和1960年的《语词与对象》(Word and Object)。他首先是一位逻辑学家,让他成名的那些原创贡献大多高度专业,外行难以进入,尽管它们的根子始终扎在哲学的根本问题里。不过在学术生涯的后半段,他对一般意义上的哲学表现出更明显的兴趣。因此我想,在本期节目里请一位站在世界声望顶峰的哲学家来谈哲学的基本问题,谈他自己的工作,会是一件独一无二的、有价值的事。

蒯因教授,您认为哲学的核心任务是什么?

蒯因:我认为哲学关心的是我们关于世界的知识,以及世界的本性。我把哲学看作一种努力,要把「世界体系」(system of the world)补足、圆满,就像牛顿所说的那种意义上的世界体系。曾有一些哲学家认为,哲学是与科学分离的东西,哲学为科学提供一个牢固的基础,科学再在这个基础上建立起来。但在我看来,这是一场空梦。科学的大部分内容,比哲学要牢固得多,哲学甚至也许根本无法企望达到那种牢固程度。我把哲学看作与科学连续的东西,甚至就是科学的一部分。

哲学与科学:只差抽象程度

马基:如果哲学与科学连续,甚至是科学的一部分,那它和科学的其余部分有什么区别?

蒯因:区别在于普遍性和抽象程度。如果把科学理解得宽一些,科学是一个连续体,一端是历史学和工程学,另一端是哲学和数学这类抽象的追求。比如,哲学考虑「原因」的本性是什么。物理学满足于界定某些特定种类的事件之间的因果关系,生物学又界定另一些种类的事件之间的因果关系;哲学问的则是,因果究竟是什么。再比如,动物学家告诉我们有袋熊,物理学家告诉我们有电子,数学家告诉我们有无穷多个素数,而哲学家感兴趣的是:总的来说,究竟有哪些种类的东西存在。哲学正是在这些方面更抽象、更普遍。

马基:换句话说,哲学家研究的是所有人思想的结缔组织,包括别人的思想。物理学家想弄清A是否导致B,哲学家问的是:说任何东西导致任何东西,这究竟是什么意思?物理学家想弄清究竟有哪些亚原子粒子,哲学家问的是:说任何东西存在,这究竟是什么意思?哲学的研究就在这种彻底普遍的层面上进行,是这样吗?

蒯因:正是如此。

马基:那么,世界最初是怎么来的,生命是怎么开始的,这些古老的问题您是包括在哲学里,还是排除在外?

蒯因:我把它们排除在哲学之外。世界是怎么开始的,这是物理学家和天文学家的问题,那方面当然已经有种种猜想。生命是怎么开始的,这是生物学家的问题,近年来生物学家在这上面已取得显著进展。至于世界为什么开始,生命为什么开始,我认为这些是伪问题,因为我想象不出一个答案会是什么样子。

马基:您的意思是,正因为这些问题不可能有任何可设想的答案,所以它们是无意义的问题?

蒯因:是的。

马基:那么概括起来,您认为哲学的核心任务是分析和阐明那些对人类各个活动领域都至关重要的概念,尤其是一些核心观念:一个东西是另一个东西的原因,这是什么意思;一个东西存在,这是什么意思;一个东西是所谓科学定律,这又是什么意思。这些是最普遍的观念,是思想的结缔组织,是科学家,甚至政治家、律师等等,在各自的具体活动中不得不使用、不得不预设的东西。这样表述您的观点对吗?

蒯因:对,我同意这个说法。

本体论与谓述问题

马基:您认为哲学家要处理的主要问题,或者说最重要的问题,可以归在某些特定的标题之下吗?

蒯因:我认为有两个标题,可以提供一种重要的分类。首先是所谓本体论问题(ontological questions)。

马基:这个术语您得解释一下。

蒯因:这类问题问的是「有什么」,问总的来说有哪些种类的东西,也问「存在」是什么意思,「有某个东西」是什么意思。另一类可以叫作谓述问题(predicative questions),问的是:关于那些存在的东西,我们能够有意义地问些什么。

马基:换句话说,这里有两个巨大的提问领域,一个是关于有什么,另一个是关于我们能知道什么、能说些什么。

蒯因:是的。认识论就包括在后一类里。

站在唯物主义一边

马基:既然您做了这个区分,为了讨论清楚,我们不妨紧扣它,两个领域一次谈一个。先谈第一个,即关于有什么、什么存在的那一整组问题,也就是哲学家所说的本体论。

关于这个问题的理论数不胜数,但纵观整个哲学史,本体论上始终存在两种大的对立立场,可以粗略地称为唯物主义(materialism)和唯心主义(idealism)。两种学说都有无数不同版本,但大体上,一边认为实在由物质,或者说时空中的物质对象构成,它们独立于任何人、任何东西对它们的经验而存在;另一边则认为实在归根结底由精神或心灵构成,或者存在于上帝的心灵之中,或者是在我们的心灵里被组装起来的。我能否用最粗糙的方式向您提那个价值六万四千美元的问题:您站在哪一边?

蒯因:我站在唯物主义一边。我认为物理对象是实在的,在我们之外独立存在。但我并不认为只有这些物理对象,还有抽象对象,即数学的对象,要补足世界体系似乎就需要它们。不过我不承认心灵、精神实体的存在,除非把它们理解为物理对象(主要是人)的属性或活动。

马基:这意味着您不仅拒绝唯心主义,也必然拒绝二元论(dualism)。二元论几乎可以说是常识的看法。我想,纵观人类历史,大多数人都认为实在归根结底由两类范畴不同的实体构成:心灵和身体。就我们所知,过去和现在的一切文明中,大多数人似乎都这样想,认为既有身体,也有心灵,二者是根本不同的两种东西。这就是二元论这个词的意思。既然您不相信心灵的存在,您就必须拒绝这种看法。

蒯因:不错,我拒绝这种看法。二元论的观点制造了一些问题,这些问题在我看来既无法解决,也并非必要。很清楚,一个人的决定会影响他的动作,很多时候决定着他的动作;而他的动作又会在其他物理对象的运动上产生后果。与此同时,自然科学家,物理学家,坚持一个封闭的系统:对于物理事件,原则上都有物理原因、物理解释,不容许有来自物理世界之外的影响侵入。既然如此,一个人的决定本身就必然是某个物理对象的活动。另一条路是放弃物理科学的这条基本原则,即没有任何变化不伴随微观物理性质在时空上分布的变化。这条路我觉得难以接受,因为自然科学的成功已经到了这样的地步,我们必须极其严肃地对待它的预设。

马基:换句话说,您的意思是,愿望、情绪、感受、决定、思想,全都是发生在物理对象(也就是人)身上的事情。在某种意义上,这当然是明显的事实。但您说的不止于此:这些东西不仅总是伴随着微观物理变化,即我们大脑和中枢神经系统等等的变化,它们本身就是那些微观物理变化。

蒯因:正是如此。

为什么人类普遍相信二元论

马基:在提出这种观点显而易见的困难之前,我想请您解释一下,为什么几乎全人类,就像我几分钟前说的,在这一点上都不同意您。人们为什么普遍持二元论的实在观?如果我把这个问题拿去问几乎任何别的人,他都可以说:这很明显,人们这样想,是因为二元论符合直接经验到的实在,我们就是这样经验事物的。但您不能这么说,因为您并不认为我们是这样经验事物的。那么您的回答会是什么?

蒯因:我当然承认,所谓心灵事件与外部可观察的物理事件之间有深刻的差别,尽管我把这些心灵事件解释为物理对象的状态或活动。至于传统的二元论态度,它当然可以追溯到原始时代。我想其中一个原因,一种部分的解释,可能是做梦的经验:在梦里,心灵似乎与身体分离了。泛灵论(animism)肯定早于科学。第一位希腊哲学家泰勒斯据说讲过,万物皆充满神灵。据说今天的原始民族大多仍是泛灵论者,相信我们所谓的无生命物体也由精灵赋予了生命。甚至可以设想,在我们科学本身的基本概念里也残留着泛灵论的痕迹。「原因」这个观念,我猜想最初来自个人用力推东西时的感觉,来自作为一个心灵实体的感受主体;「力」的概念肯定也是这样起源的。但随着时间推移,随着科学进步,近几个世纪里这些概念逐渐脱离了原初的心灵语境,而这种脱离似乎对巨大的科学进步大有助益。我把物理主义(physicalism)看作晚近科学的产物,而晚近科学,在人类历史上当然是很不典型的现象。

马基:但我认为,大多数人持二元论实在观的主要原因,并不在于梦或者您提到的其他东西。我认为主要是因为,在我看来,我们每个人都直接经验到一股内在的流:思想、情绪、反应、欲望、幻想、记忆等等,在我们醒着的时候一刻不停。这股流极其复杂,不仅在于它可能涉及复杂的事情,还在于可能有好几件事同时进行。我想我们每个人都直接意识到内部有这样的东西在进行,而它并不以任何方式表现为可观察的外部行为。

蒯因:我们确实意识到这些东西,我并不否认它们的存在,只是把它们解释、重构为物理对象的活动,也就是我们自己的活动。这些东西从外面大体上观察不到,但这一点并不能把它们与物理学家假定的许多东西区别开来,比如无生命物体内部的微观或亚微观结构。有大量事情在发生,我们从外面看不到,只能通过猜想来解释。把这一切活动解释为身体的活动,重要的理由在于保持物理世界体系的封闭性。

相容论:意志自由但有原因

马基:这是否意味着,您否认那个古老的问题,即我们是否有自由意志,是一个真实的问题?

蒯因:不是这个意思。意志会保留它的地位,即使它归根结底成了一种神经现象,成了物理对象活动的一个方面。不过我认为,意志自由的问题出自一种混淆。在我看来意志的自由不成问题:意志是自由的,就这个意义而言,人们常常做他们想做的事。在种种约束的限度内,在他们的体力或才能的限度内,他们可以自由地做他们意愿要做的事。意志自由并不意味着意志可以自由地想要它所想要的东西,那是胡说;也不意味着意志是没有原因的。意志是有原因的,而且我们都准备承认意志有原因:我们训练孩子,试图影响他们的行为;我们制定法律,阻吓罪犯;我们拉选票;商人推销东西。所有这些都是在促使人去意愿某事。但意志的自由仍然保留着,只要人的活动是一条因果链的结果,而意愿是这条链上的一环,而这一环本身又可以是有原因的。

马基:持有这些观点,您如何看待传统的身心问题?让我向观众提醒一下这个问题是什么。我前面说过,大多数人似乎持二元论的实在观,认为宇宙中的一切归根结底要么是心灵,要么是身体,两种实体都存在。这引出了一个传统问题,至今没有人提出过完全令人满意的解决:这些无形体的、抽象的、非物质的心灵,怎么能真正推动物质的身体?很清楚,既然您不相信心灵作为独立于身体的东西而存在,这个问题对您就不以这种形式出现。那么,鉴于您的观点,您是完全绕过身心问题了吗?

蒯因:正如你所说,身心问题对我来说不以那种形式存在,不再有那种相互作用的难题。事实上,我选择物理主义,正是为了消除那种形式的问题。但接下来的问题是:如果我们不承认心灵,不承认心灵实体,那我们该怎么谈论所有这些通常所谓的心灵事件、心灵活动,这股经验之流?想把这一切都改写成神经学的术语是没用的,因为那需要对神经系统机制有太多细节上的了解。

作为第一步,有一个又快又容易的解决办法:干脆保留心灵主义的词汇,但把这些词一律看作适用于身体、适用于身体活动的词。这很容易,某种意义上太容易了。因为支持物理主义态度的还有一点,我到现在还没有提到,就是主体间性(intersubjectivity)的好处,也就是客观性。物理主义的材料不是内省的材料,而是共享的、可以由其他观察者共享的材料。至少在很大程度上正是因为这一点,自然科学才如此成功,而内省心理学却没有取得相当的成功。现在,如果我们把内省心理学和心灵主义的整套概念装备原封不动地接过来,只是用「这些都是身体的属性或活动」来搪塞,我们就不再享有自然科学的主体间性的好处了。

行为主义:让心理术语合法化

蒯因:不过有一个办法可以应付这个困难,那就是行为主义(behaviorism),而这正是我认为行为主义重要而有价值的意义所在。我认为行为主义的作用在于让心灵主义的术语合法化,而不必经过神经学这条迂回的、实际上行不通的渠道。心灵状态的判据,主体间可观察的判据,可以在行为中找到,在可观察的行为中找到。

马基:包括言语行为?

蒯因:包括言语行为。只要这样的判据可用,我们终究能享有自然科学的好处,而且不需要完整的神经学解释。所以我是行为主义者,就限于这个程度:我把行为主义看作一种让心灵主义概念获得客观意义的方式。我并不把心灵状态等同于行为,我把心灵状态等同于神经状态。我也不认为行为的描述归根结底能够解释心灵状态、心灵现象;我认为对这些现象的完整解释要到神经学的层次去找。

马基:换句话说,您是说行为主义不是对哲学家所处理的那类问题的解释,而是表述这些问题的一种方式,是一种语言,问题应当先用这种语言来措辞、来表述,然后我们再去尝试提供解决。

蒯因:正是如此。

马基:我想在这里稍停一下,蒯因教授,在往前推进之前,让我把已经走过的路回顾一遍。我开始时问您,您认为哲学的核心任务是什么。您不仅说了哲学家应当做什么,也说了他们不应当做什么,排除了一些问题。您把哲学家应当关心的问题归在两大标题之下:第一类是关于什么存在、实在由什么构成;第二类是关于我们能对此知道什么、如何知道、能说些什么。从那时起,我们一直在讨论第一类问题。您说您的实在观是物理主义的,认为一切实在都由物理实体构成,不存在与物理实体分离的心灵,而认为存在这种心灵的观念会把我们引入种种概念混乱,您认为行为主义的分析能把我们从这些混乱中解放出来。

抽象对象与基本粒子的同等地位

马基:现在我想开始转向第二类问题,因为我们其实已经在往里走了,所以我才觉得该停下来重新审视一下我们的位置。我们能否进入第二个领域,谈谈我们如何获得关于我们身处其中的这个物理世界的知识?

蒯因:好。不过我要做一点纠正:我的立场不是只有物理对象存在,还有抽象对象。但这些抽象对象不是心灵的。

马基:这是个重要的区分。您不相信存在与物理事物分离的心灵,但您相信某些抽象实体的存在。

蒯因:是的,尤其是数。

马基:这一点您得多解释一下。如果您是物理主义者,您怎么能为相信抽象实体的存在辩护?

蒯因:集合或类,以及数和函数,它们的地位,我认为,与物理学中基本粒子这类假设实体的地位没有根本的不同。两种情形都是在构造假设,这些假设涵盖过去的观察,并在可指明的条件下蕴涵未来的观察,而未来的观察又可以印证或反驳这些假设。这些普遍假设所提及的,不仅有普通的可观察对象,还有许多可以叫作辅助对象的东西:一方面是不可观察的物理粒子,另一方面是数和函数,因为它们进入了定量假设的表述。甚至还有类或集合,生物学家谈论生物的属和种。所有这些实体都是世界的家具,作为同等地位的设定,进入我们的世界体系。

马基:您说同等地位,但在我看来,亚原子粒子不可观察的意义与数不可观察的意义之间有一个非常重要的区别。亚原子粒子是一小块一小块的东西,只是碰巧,也许由于我们视觉器官的偶然性,它们太小,我们看不见。如果我们有显微镜似的眼睛,或者超显微镜似的眼睛,也许就能看见它们;如果我们的手指是另一种样子,也许就能把它们拾起来。它们是物质的碎片。而数不是任何多么小的物质碎片,它们彻头彻尾是抽象的,除了抽象什么也没有。

蒯因:确实有这个区别。但普通可观察对象与基本粒子之间的连续性,要比人们曾经以为的脆弱得多。因为基本粒子小到即使在原则上也无法用光探测到,它比任何波长都小。此外,基本粒子的行为与较大物体的行为根本不同,以至于可以说,它们只是出于礼貌才被称作「物质的」。一个电子的两段路径究竟是同一个电子的路径还是两个不同电子的路径,这一点是不确定的;位置也是不确定的;在解释光的时候有波与粒子的对立;还有其他种种反常,比如所谓玻色-爱因斯坦统计(Bose-Einstein statistics)。这一切都表明,「物体」这个类比是一个在某个限度内对外推有用的类比,但此后,随着进一步的实验和反驳,假设不断重组、演化,最终把我们带到了这样一个地步:那种连续性已不再明显。

意义、翻译与必然性的消解

马基:我想把这个话题停在这里,蒯因教授,因为我要在我们的讨论中往回退三步,拾起刚才谈到的一件在我看来具有更普遍意义的事情,我们当时稍微跑题了,我想部分是我的责任。我要回到您说过,或者说暗示过的一点:采取物理主义的实在观,采取行为主义的分析,采取行为主义的问题表述方式,其效果是把人从某些根深蒂固的看事情方式的魔咒中解放出来,这些方式虽然可能是常识的一部分,却是错误的。我想就在这一点上请教您:您认为您的进路能把我们从哪些根深蒂固的观念中解放出来?

蒯因:解放是一种看法,把行为主义看作更严格的纪律是另一种看法。不管怎样,一个主要的例子是意义(meaning)这个观念。常识认为,语词以某种方式传达意义。我们怎么知道同样的词向两个说话者传达同样的意义?我们可以看到两个说话者以同样的方式做出反应。这一切都可以用行为的术语描述。但意义本身会不会仍然不同?这个问题能有什么行为上的意义?没有行为上的意义,至少没有人为它给出过充分的行为意义。

还有其他一些观念同样受到质疑。翻译,一旦意义的观念受到质疑,翻译的观念就变得复杂了:我们不能再说翻译只是造出另一个句子,它与被翻译的句子有同样的意义。还有必然性(necessity)的观念,也受到质疑。

马基:必然性有两种。

蒯因:是的,逻辑必然性和因果必然性。一种通常被理解为凭借词的意义而成立的必然性:一个句子由于它所包含的词的意义而为真。如果意义的观念站不住脚,这种刻画就跟着站不住脚。然后是物理必然性的观念,尤其是凭借物理定律而成立的必然性。这种必然性并不以同样的方式依赖意义,但由于同一类顾虑,它也变得可疑了。在我看来,一个恰好为真的普遍命题、普遍陈述,与一个作为定律的普遍陈述,二者之间是否有区别,这一点并不清楚。「必然地」这个副词用得很普遍,这似乎表明人们心里有一个区分,把真理分成两种:必然的和偶然的。但我认为这个词的日常用法可以用别的方式解释。我认为它取决于情境和语境。一个人说「必然地」,后面跟一个句子,是当他认为对方不得不承认这个句子,因为对方已经承诺了某些东西,或者可以假定对方相信某些东西。这会随语境而变。

蒯因的暂定本体论与谓词标准

马基:质疑因果必然性、逻辑必然性、定律的观念、意义的观念,这些都是我们思维中最根本的观念,地面开始从我们脚下消失了。到了这一步,蒯因教授,我想请您为我们整体地刻画一下,我们最后得出的是一种什么样的世界观。

蒯因:好,我们仍然按本体论与谓述这个二分来讲。在本体论一边,我所接受、所假定的,首先是物理对象。物理对象的理解相当宽泛,指时空中任何一个部分的内容,不管这个部分多么零散、多么不连续。然后是这些东西的一切类,一切类的类,以此类推。数学家在过去一个世纪里已经发现,关于数、函数以及其他数学实体的一切谈论,都可以改写成纯粹集合论的谈论,也就是关于类、类的类的谈论;选取适当的类,可以让它们承担数、函数以及其余东西的工作。所以我们需要这些。

另一方面,这些是我接受的抽象对象,还有一些抽象对象我会拒绝。性质(properties)我拒绝,因为存在这样的问题:在什么情况下两个描述、两个刻画确定同一个性质,在什么情况下确定不同的性质(哪怕它们恰好是同样一些东西的性质)?这是性质的个体化、同一性的问题。通常的说法是,两个短语如果有同样的意义,就确定同一个性质。但如果我们不接受意义的观念,这种刻画当然也就站不住脚。而在类的情形下,同一性问题不会出现,因为两个类只要有同样的成员就是同一的。我确信性质在科学中是可以省掉的,而类如何省掉则不清楚。所以这就是我暂定的本体论:个体,以及建立在个体之上的类、类的类等等的层级,个体就是物理对象。我把这个本体论看作科学的一部分,和科学的其余部分一样可错。

在谓述一边,我的观点我想主要是否定性的。它拒绝那些在行为方面,或者说在可观察方面,缺少足够应用判据的谓词。如果做不到这一点,我想我们也必须接受理论谓词,它们不容许有观察上的判据;但在那里必须坚持,它们要通过定律,通过假设,或者更好地说,通过普遍的物理理论,与观察类的谓词有相当牢固的联系,从而构成一个结构严密、便于预测的世界体系。所以我并不坚持谓词必须在观察中有充分必要条件,我坚持的是,谓词要么有相当多的可观察判据、应用的征候,要么在理论假设中扮演相当有希望的角色。

语义上升:为何要谈论词语

马基:我们这场讨论有一点让我很高兴,就是到现在为止没有一处是专门谈语言、谈词语的。我这么说,是因为许多开始对哲学感兴趣的理智的外行,有时会被一个发现吓退:他们以为现代哲学家除了谈词语、谈术语、分析句子和陈述之外什么也不做。而您完全没有那样谈,您所关心的问题显然不是关于语言的问题。不过,一个人打开您的书,或者一个学生第一次来哈佛跟您学习,会发现您处理这些问题的技术在很大程度上是经由概念分析,因而是经由对句子和陈述的仔细阐明。为什么您和其他当代哲学家要对这些归根结底并非语言问题的问题采取这种语言的进路?

蒯因:一个原因是我称之为「语义上升」(semantic ascent)的策略。哲学问题往往涉及一个人概念框架的最根本特征。如果两位哲学家在这类问题上有分歧,他们很难讨论这个分歧而不各自陷入窃取论题(begging the question),因为不利用自己概念框架的基本原则,就很难推理和论证。避免或者至少减轻这个困难的一种办法,就是在语义上往上走一步:谈论词语,而不是使用词语去谈论事物。做了这一步之后,就可以把相互竞争的体系当作句子的体系来谈论,可以在简单性和包容性上比较它们,在一个共享的基础上做出判断,而不陷入循环论证,不窃取论题。

三个待突破的问题

马基:我们的讨论快要结束了,蒯因教授。但在真正结束之前,我想请您谈谈,也许结合我们到现在为止的讨论,您目前在做什么工作。时间所剩无几,我不得不请您比我希望的更简短一些。

蒯因:目前我在写一些短文,努力阐明我其他著作里已有的一些观点,或者扩展和改进它们。但有几个问题,我希望看到有人取得突破。

一个与语言有关:发展某种概念框架,来取代那种站不住脚的、老式的意义理论;发展某种新的、更可接受的理论,比如说明什么才算好的翻译。这也许是语言学家的工作,但它具有哲学上的意义,而且在这项工作里,有哲学好奇心的人很可能对语言学家有帮助。

第二个与心理学有关。我希望看到发展出一套概念系统,来承担那些老的、心灵主义的命题态度(propositional attitude)用语的工作,比如「X相信p」「X遗憾p」「X希望p」这类说法。这些用语受制于一些微妙的逻辑困难和复杂情况,而且在大部分应用中都缺乏充分的行为判据。我希望看到的,不是供一般言谈使用,而是供科学目的使用的一套装备,它能起到与这些用语同样的作用,又没有那些缺陷。

第三个与数学有关。我接受抽象对象、集合以及其余东西的装备,是有些勉强的,因为它们似乎是科学所需要的。但我希望看到集合论有一个最小的基础,一个经济的、非常清楚可解的基础,刚好足以支撑自然科学所需要的那么多数学。而且如果这个基础发展出来了,它或许还能让我们对集合论的所谓悖论、二律背反(antinomies)及其解决,比如罗素悖论(Russell's Paradox),获得一种更直观的理解。有些观众熟悉罗素悖论,但不是所有人都熟悉,所以这也许是一个好的起点。

马基:可是我们必须停下来了。非常感谢您,蒯因教授。

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章节 · 点击跳转视频
0:11 蒯因其人与哲学的核心任务 ▶ 正在看
2:31 哲学与科学连续:只差抽象程度 ▶ 正在看
5:56 本体论与谓述问题的二分 ▶ 正在看
6:59 站在唯物主义一边,拒斥二元论 ▶ 正在看
10:52 为什么人类普遍相信心身二元 ▶ 正在看
16:20 相容论:意志自由但有原因 ▶ 正在看
19:08 行为主义作为心理术语的合法化 ▶ 正在看
24:28 抽象对象与基本粒子的同等地位 ▶ 正在看
29:48 意义、翻译与必然性的消解 ▶ 正在看
33:42 蒯因的暂定本体论与谓词标准 ▶ 正在看
37:47 语义上升:为何要谈论词语 ▶ 正在看
40:25 三个待突破的问题 ▶ 正在看
本期小问 · 档案清单
24:28 什么是「真实」? ▶ 正在看
29:48 语言还承载意义吗? ▶ 正在看
16:20 人有自由意志吗? ▶ 正在看
2:31 知识从哪里来? ▶ 正在看
本期讲者
威拉德·冯·奥曼·蒯因美国哲学家、逻辑学家(1908–2000),哈佛大学教授,20 世纪分析哲学最重要人物之一。代表作《从逻辑的观点看》(1953)、《语词和对象》(1960),以批判分析/综合区分、提出翻译不确定性和自然化认识论著称。
布莱恩·马基英国哲学家、广播人和政治家(1930–2019),曾任工党议员。主持 BBC 系列《Men of Ideas》(1978)和《The Great Philosophers》(1987),以向大众清晰介绍哲学闻名。
01蒯因其人与哲学的核心任务
0:11
thank you if we took a poll among professional teachers of philosophy on the question who is the most important living philosopher it's not at all obvious to me at least who would get the most votes but we can be fairly sure about some of the names that would be in the top half dozen probably though strictly speaking he's not exactly a philosopher well the first of those names and one on which I'd lay pretty short odds is that of Willard van oremenquin one of the professors of philosophy at Harvard Quan was born in 1908 and is still highly productive so he's had a long career and it's by no means over yet he's published innumerable articles and over a dozen books the best known of which are from a logical point of view published in 1953 and word and object published in 1960 first and foremost he's a logician and the original contributions to the subject which made him famous are for the most part highly Technical and not really accessible to the Layman though they always had their ultimate roots and
谢谢。如果我们在专业的哲学教师中做一次民意调查,问谁是在世的最重要的哲学家,至少对我来说,谁会得到最多的票数完全不明显,但我们可以相当有把握地说出其中一些很可能会进入前六名的名字——尽管严格说来,他并不完全算是哲学家。而这些名字中的第一个,也是我愿意押上很低赔率的一个,就是威拉德·范·奥曼·蒯因,哈佛大学的哲学教授之一蒯因生于1908年,如今依然极为多产,所以他的学术生涯很长,而且远未结束。他发表了数不清的论文,还有十几本书,其中最著名的是1953年出版的《从逻辑的观点看》,以及《语词和对象》后者出版于1960年。首先也是最重要的,他是一位逻辑学家,而使他成名的那些原创贡献大多高度技术化,对外行人来说并不真正易懂,尽管它们的根源始终
便签笔记
1:18
problems fundamental to philosophy however in the latter part of his career he's become more overtly interested in philosophy in a more General sense and I thought it would be uniquely valuable in this program to have a philosopher at the very Summit of world reputation talking about the basics of philosophy and of his own activity Professor kwine what do you regard as the central tasks or tasks of philosophy I think a philosophy is concerned with the with the the with our knowledge of the world and the nature of the world like a consider I think of philosophy as attempting to round out the system of the world as uh Newton would it there have been philosophers who have thought of philosophy as somehow separate from science and as providing a firm basis on which to build science but this uh I consider an empty dream science much of science is firmer than philosophy is or can even perhaps aspire to be I think of philosophy as continuous with science even as a part of science well if it's continuous with science and
在于哲学的根本问题。不过在他学术生涯的后期,他对更一般意义上的哲学产生了更明显的兴趣。我想,在这个节目中请到一位享有世界最高声誉的哲学家来谈谈哲学的基本问题和他自己的工作,会有独一无二的价值。蒯因教授您认为哲学的核心任务,或者说诸任务是什么?我认为哲学关心的是——是——是我们对世界的知识以及世界的本性。我认为哲学是在试图把世界的体系补全就像牛顿所做的那样。曾有哲学家认为哲学在某种意义上独立于科学,并为科学提供一个可以在其上建造的坚实基础,但我认为这是一场空想。科学——科学的很大一部分比哲学更坚实,甚至比哲学所能指望达到的还要坚实。我认为哲学与科学是连续的,甚至就是科学的一部分那么,如果它与科学连续,甚至是科学的一部分,它与科学的其余部分有什么区别呢?呃,区别在于普遍性和
便签笔记
02哲学与科学连续:只差抽象程度
2:31
even part of science how does it differ from the rest of science uh it differs in generality and in abstractness science uh is a Continuum extending from history and engineering and at one end if we think of science broadly uh to such abstract Pursuits as philosophy and Mathematics at the other philosophy considers the the question of the nature of cause for instance where physics uh condense itself with defining causal relations between specific sorts of events biology between other sorts of events again whereas the zoologists will tell us that there are wombats and the physicists will tell us that there are electrons the mathematicians will tell us there are no end of prime numbers the philosopher is interested rather in what sorts of things there are altogether and it's in these ways that philosophy is more abstract in general in other words the philosopher is investigating what constitutes the connective tissue of everyone's thoughts including other people's thoughts so that they the
抽象性。科学是一个连续体,如果我们从广义上理解科学,它一端延伸到历史学和工程学,另一端延伸到哲学和数学这样抽象的探究。比如说,哲学考虑的是——是原因这个概念的本性问题而物理学则关心界定特定种类事件之间的因果关系,生物学关心另一些种类事件之间的因果关系再比如,动物学家告诉我们有袋熊这种东西,物理学家告诉我们有电子这种东西,数学家告诉我们素数是无穷无尽的,而哲学家感兴趣的则是总体上究竟存在哪些种类的东西。正是在这些方面,哲学更抽象、更一般。换句话说哲学家研究的是构成每个人思想——包括别人的思想——的那种结缔组织,所以说
便签笔记
3:43
physicist is is trying to find out whether or not a causes B but the philosopher is saying but what does it mean to say that anything causes anything uh the physicist is trying to find out say what particular subatomic particles there are uh and the philosopher says but what does it mean to say of anything that it exists yes it's at this level of complete generality that the Philosopher's investigations occur is that right now do you uh do you include in this or do you exclude from it the age-old questions of how the world got here in the first place or how life began uh I exclude these from philosophy um how the world began uh is a problem for the physicist and astronomer and of course there have been conjectures from that quarter how life began is a problem for the biologist and which he's made notable progress in recent years why the world began why life began on the other hand I think uh uh our our pseudo questions because I can't uh um I I can't imagine what an answer would look like and you think that because
物理学家是——是在设法弄清A是否引起B,而哲学家则说,可是说任何东西引起任何东西,究竟是什么意思?呃,物理学家试图弄清,比如说,究竟存在哪些亚原子粒子,呃,而哲学家则说,可是说某个东西存在,究竟是什么意思?是的,哲学家的探究正是发生在这种完全普遍的层次上,对吗?那么您是把这些包括在内,还是排除在外——那些古老的问题,比如世界最初是怎么来的,或者生命是如何开始的?呃,我把这些排除在哲学之外。嗯,世界是如何开始的,这是物理学家和天文学家的问题,当然从那个方面也已经有过一些猜想。生命是如何开始的,则是生物学家,而且近年来他在这方面取得了显著进展。世界为何开始、生命为何开始——另一方面,我认为,我们的、我们的这些伪问题,因为我没法……呃,我想象不出答案会是什么样子。而你之所以这么想,是因为
便签笔记
4:52
there is no conceivable answer to these questions they are said to speak meaningless questions yes it is yes so in other words you'll regard the the central tasks of philosophy as the analysis and elucidation of Concepts that are Central to various fields of human activity and also in particular Notions like core what it is for something to be a cause of something else what it is for something to exist uh what it is for something to be shall we say a scientific law the most General Notions that that are as it were the connecting tissue of thought and that we have to use and have to imply in the specific activities that people like scientists or it could even be politicians lawyers and so on are engaged in is there is that a correct way of putting your view yes yes I would agree with that do you think that the main or the most important questions that philosophers have to deal with can be grouped under any uh particular headings there are two headings uh uh which I think provide an important
这些问题根本不存在可以设想的答案,所以就说它们是无意义的问题。是的,正是这样。所以换句话说,你把哲学的核心任务看作是分析和阐明那些处于人类各种活动领域核心位置的概念人类活动,尤其是像“原因”这样的概念——一个东西成为另一个东西的原因意味着什么,什么叫做某物存在,呃,什么叫某个东西是——比方说——一条科学定律;这些最一般的概念,可以说是思想的连接组织,是我们在科学家这类人所从事的具体活动中必须使用、必须预设的甚至可能是政治家、律师等等所从事的活动。这样表述你的观点对吗对,对,我同意这个说法。你认为哲学家必须处理的主要问题、或者说最重要的问题,可以归到某些特定的标题之下吗?有两个标题,我认为提供了一个重要的分类。首先是
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03本体论与谓述问题的二分
5:56
classification to begin with there are the ontological questions as they might be called well I think you'll need to explain that term uh these would be interesting questions as to what there is the general questions as to what sorts of things there are as well as the question of what it means to what what it means to exist uh for there to be something um and the other um classification the other class would be uh might be called the predicated questions um questions questions as to what sorts of things can meaningfully be asked about what there is in other words you've got two enormous spheres of questioning here one about what there is and the other about what we can know about what there is or what we can say about people yes and epistemology would be included in the letter yes yes yes now I think since you've made this distinction for clarity's sake in our discussion we ought to cling to it a little and I think we'll take these two areas one at a time and we'll take your first one first the whole group of questions about
可以称之为本体论的那些问题。嗯,我想你得解释一下这个术语。呃,这些就是关于“有什么存在”的那些有趣问题,关于存在着哪些种类的事物的一般问题,以及“存在”意味着什么的问题,呃,某物存在意味着什么。嗯,而另一个分类、另一类可以呃,称为谓述性的问题,嗯,就是关于对于存在之物我们能有意义地追问哪些方面的问题换句话说,这里有两大提问领域,一个是关于有什么存在,另一个是关于我们对存在之物能知道什么、或者能说些什么。是的。那么认识论就包含在后者里?对,对,是的。那么我想,既然你为了讨论的清晰做了这个区分,我们不妨稍微守住它,我想我们就一个一个地来谈这两个领域,先谈你说的第一个:关于有什么存在、什么东西存在的那一整类问题,或者像你说的
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04站在唯物主义一边,拒斥二元论
6:59
what there is what exists or as you say what is called ontology by philosophers although there are innumerable theories about this I think it's fair to say that throughout the history of the subject there have been two broad opposing views in metal ontology between what you might very roughly called materialists and what you might call idealists I mean although there are innumerable different versions of both doctrines you do have on the one hand a view that reality consists of matter or material objects in space and time which exist independently of any ones or anything's experience of them and on the other hand you have a view of reality as consisting ultimately in spirits or minds or is existing in the mind of God or as being put together in our minds now can I put very crudely the 64 question to you and ask you which side you're on I'm in the materialist side yes uh yes I hope that uh physical objects are real and exist externally and independently of us um I don't know that there are only
哲学家所称的本体论。尽管关于这方面有数不清的理论,但我想可以公允地说在这门学科的整个历史上,本体论中一直存在两大对立的观点,大致可以非常粗略地称之为唯物主义者和唯心主义者。我是说,尽管这两种学说都有无数不同的版本,但一方面确实有一种观点认为,实在是由处在时空中的物质或物质对象构成的它们独立于任何人或任何东西对它们的经验而存在;另一方面则有一种观点认为,实在归根结底是由精神或心灵构成的,或者是存在于上帝的心灵之中,或者是在我们心中被拼合起来的。那么我能不能非常直白地向你抛出那个价值六万四千美元的问题,问问你站在哪一边?我站在唯物主义这一边。是的,呃,是的,我认为物理对象是真实的,外在于我们、独立于我们而存在。嗯,我并不认为只有这些物理对象,还有
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8:10
these physical objects there are also abstract objects um objects of uh mathematics that seem to be needed to fill out the system of the world but uh I don't uh I I don't recognize the existence of minds of mental entities uh in any sense other than as attributes or activities on the part of physical objects mainly persons uh uh that must mean then that you not only reject idealism it must also mean that you reject dualism I mean one might describe dualism as almost the common sense view I think throughout human history most human beings have taken the view that reality consists ultimately of entities of two categorially different kinds minds and bodies and as far as we know in all civilizations past and present most people seem to have thought this that there were bodies and that there were minds and that these were two fundamentally different kinds of things now that's what is meant by the term dualism that's now you must reject this view if you don't believe in the existence of Minds it's true I do reject
抽象对象,嗯,数学的那些对象,它们似乎是充实这个世界体系所必需的。但是,呃我不……呃,我不承认心灵、心理实体的存在,除非是把它们看作物理对象的属性或活动主要是人的属性或活动。呃,那这一定意味着你不仅拒斥唯心主义,也一定意味着你拒斥二元论。我是说,人们大概可以把二元论描述为几乎是常识性的观点。我想在整个人类历史上,大多数人都持这样的观点:实在归根结底由两类范畴上截然不同的实体构成——心灵和身体。而且据我们所知,在所有古今文明中,大多数人似乎都这么认为:既有身体,也有心灵,而这是两种根本不同的东西。这就是“二元论”这个词的意思。那么,如果你不相信心灵的存在,你现在就必定要拒斥这个观点。确实如此,我的确拒斥这个观点。嗯,二元论的观点带来了问题、制造了一些问题,这些问题
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9:25
the view um the dualistic View presents problems creates problems which are uh neither uh soluble nor it seems to me necessary uh it's uh it's clear that that a an individual's decisions uh will affect his movements will determine his movements in many cases and his movements in turn will uh will have consequences in the movements of other physical objects uh at the same time the natural scientists the physicists um uh insist on a a closed system they're being physical causes physical explanations in principle for uh for the physical events they allow no place for the incursion of influences from outside the physical world uh given all this it would seem then that a person's decisions must themselves be uh activity on the part of a physical object of the alternative of rejecting the this basic uh principle of the of of physical science to the effect that uh every change is that there's no change without a change in the distribution of microphysical properties over space time over over space
呃,既无法解决,在我看来也没有必要。呃,很清楚的是,一个人的决定呃,会影响他的动作,在很多情况下会决定他的动作,而他的动作反过来又会,呃,对其他物理对象的运动产生影响。呃,与此同时,自然科学家、物理学家,嗯,坚持认为这是一个封闭的系统也就是说,物理事件原则上都有物理原因、物理解释,他们不给物理世界之外的影响侵入留任何余地。呃,鉴于这一切,看来一个人的决定本身必定就是某个物理对象方面的活动。至于另一种选择,也就是拒斥物理科学的这条基本原则——也就是说,呃,任何变化……没有微观物理属性在时空中、在空间中分布的变化,就没有变化——嗯,那种选择我觉得,呃,难以接受,因为自然科学取得的成功如此之大,以至于我们
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05为什么人类普遍相信心身二元
10:52
um that alternative I find uh uncongenial because the success is in Natural Science have been such that we must take their presuppositions very seriously in other words what you are saying is that that wishes emotions feelings decisions thoughts are all things which take place in physical objects namely people and of course in a sense that's an obvious fact and what you're saying is that not only are these always accompanied by microphysical changes changes in our brains and our central nervous systems and so on but they indeed are those microphysical changes exactly now before I go on to raise with you some of the apparent difficulties inherent in that view I wonder if you could explain how it is that almost all of mankind as I said only a few minutes ago has disagreed with you about this so why people in general take a dualist view of reality stuff I mean let me at this point I mean if I put that question to almost anyone else he could say well it's obvious why people think like that because dualism corresponds to directly
必须非常认真地对待它的那些前提预设。换句话说,你的意思是,愿望、情绪、感觉、决定、思想,全都是发生在物理对象——也就是人——身上的事情。当然,从某种意义上说这是显而易见的事实。而你要说的是,这些东西不仅总是伴随着微观物理变化,也就是我们大脑和中枢神经系统等等的变化,而且它们本身就是那些微观物理变化。正是如此。那么,在我接着向你提出这个观点内在的一些明显困难之前,我想请你解释一下,为什么几乎全人类,就像我几分钟前说的,在这一点上都跟你意见不合。也就是说,为什么人们普遍对实在持二元论的观点。我是说,讲到这里,如果我把这个问题拿去问几乎任何别的人,他都可以说,很明显人们之所以那样想,是因为二元论符合我们直接经验到的实在,我们就是那样经验事物的。但你不能这么说
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12:02
experienced reality that is how we experience things but you can't say that because you don't think it is how we experience things so what would your answer be I I recognize uh certainly a a profound difference between uh so-called metal events um and uh externally observable physical ones in spite of construing these mental events as uh themselves event States activity on the part of a physical object the reason uh and as for the the traditional dualistic attitude uh certainly this goes back to primitive times I think one cause of it uh partial explanation May uh be the experience of dreams and the seeming separation of the of the the uh mind from the body in that state um certainly animism antidated science thales the first of the Greek philosophers is said to have said that all things are full of Gods primitive people peoples today are said to be animists uh very largely and to believe that that what we call inanimate objects are are animated by spirits the um one can even imagine traces of animism in the basic concepts
因为你并不认为我们是那样经验事物的。那么你的回答会是什么呢?我,我确实承认,呃,在所谓的心理事件和外部可观察的物理事件之间有着深刻的差别,尽管我把这些心理事件本身理解为物理对象方面的事件、状态和活动。呃,至于传统的二元论态度呃,这当然可以追溯到原始时代。我认为其中一个原因、一部分解释,呃,可能是做梦的经验,以及在那种状态下心灵似乎与身体相分离。嗯,万物有灵论无疑早于科学。据说第一位希腊哲学家泰勒斯曾说过“万物皆充满神灵”。据说今天的原始民族呃,在很大程度上也是万物有灵论者,相信我们所说的无生命物体是被精灵赋予了生气的。嗯,人们甚至可以设想在我们科学本身的基本概念中也留有万物有灵论的痕迹。我猜“原因”这个概念一开始来自
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13:33
of of our science itself the notion of cause I suspect began with the feeling of effort of pushing on the part of the individual the subject of feeling the uh um as a as a mental uh entity and force surely had that sort of origin but as time has gone on and as science has progressed and uh in in recent centuries of the the dissociation of these Concepts from their original a mental context seems to have been conducive to to a great scientific progress and I think of the I think of physicalism as a departure a product of uh Latter-Day science which of course is a phenomenon that's a very uh uncharacteristic of the uh the history of mankind but I don't think that the chief reason why most people take a dualist view of reality is to do with dreams or the other things that you've mentioned I think it's chiefly because we all do have uh it seems to me direct experience of an internal flow of thoughts and emotions and responses and desires and Fantasies and memories and so on which is going on
个人推东西时那种用力的感觉,来自感觉的主体,呃,嗯,作为一种心理实体;而“力”肯定也有这类起源但随着时间推移、随着科学的进步,呃,在最近这几个世纪,把这些概念从它们原本的心理语境中剥离出来,似乎促成了科学的巨大进步。我把,我把物理主义看作一个新的出发点,是晚近科学的产物,而科学当然是一种非常,呃,不同于呃,人类历史常态的现象。不过我并不认为,大多数人对实在持二元论观点的主要原因跟梦或者你提到的其他东西有关。我认为主要是因为在我看来我们确实都直接经验到一股内在的思想、情绪、反应、欲望、幻想、记忆等等的流动,它在我们清醒的
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15:03
all the time that we're awake and which is extremely complex not only in the sense that it may be about complicated things but also in the sense that there may be several different things going on at once and I think we're all directly aware of something like this going on inside ourselves and this doesn't manifest itself in any way in observable external Behavior we are aware of these things uh and and um and I'm not denying their existence but I'm construing them or reconstructing them as activities on the part of physical objects uh namely on our part and um the the fact that these are not observable on the whole from the uh from the outside it doesn't distinguish them from much that the physicist assumes in the way of internal microscopic or submicroscopic structure of inanimate objects a great deal goes on that we don't observe from the outside and that we have to account for conjecturally of the uh import important reason for construing all this activity as activity on the part of bodies is to preserve the the uh
全部时间里都在进行,而且极其复杂;不仅是因为它可能涉及复杂的事情,还因为可能同时有好几件不同的事情在进行。我认为我们都能直接意识到自己内部有这样的东西在发生,而这并不以任何方式表现在可观察的外部行为中。我们确实意识到这些东西,呃,而且,嗯,我并不否认它们的存在,只是我把它们理解为、或者说重构为物理对象方面的活动,呃,也就是我们自己方面的活动。而且,嗯,这些东西大体上无法从外部观察到,这一点并不能把它们同物理学家所假定的许多东西区分开来——比如无生命物体的内部微观或亚微观结构有大量事情在发生,我们无法从外部观察到,只能靠推测来加以说明呃,把这一切活动理解为物体方面的活动,其重要理由在于保持
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06相容论:意志自由但有原因
16:20
closed uh character of the system of the physical world does this mean that you deny the real existence of the age-old problem about whether or not we have free will it doesn't mean that but I I uh because the will would retain its uh its status even though becoming a a ultimately a a neural phenomenon and a an aspect of the activity of a physical object however I think the problem with the freedom of the will is an outcome of a of a confusion uh there's no question in my mind about the freedom of the will of that the will is free in the sense that people very often uh do what they will to do they are free to within limits of uh constraint into the within limits of their their strength or Talent to do things that they will to do freedom of the will does not mean that the will is free to will as it will that would be nonsense and it doesn't mean that the will is uncaused the will is caused and we all uh are prepared to recognize that the will is caused when we try to train children in such a way as to
物理世界这个系统的,呃,封闭性。这是否意味着你否认那个由来已久的问题真实存在也就是我们是否有自由意志的问题?并不意味着如此。但我,我,呃,因为意志仍然保有它的,呃,它的地位,即使它归根结底成了一种神经现象,成了物理对象活动的一个方面。不过我认为意志自由的问题是某种混淆的产物。呃,在我看来意志自由是毫无疑问的,意志是自由的,就是说人们常常,呃,做他们想做的事;他们在,呃,受约束的限度内、在在他们自己的力量或才能的限度内,可以自由地去做他们想做的事。意志自由并不意味着意志可以随心所欲地去意愿它所意愿的,那是胡说;也不意味着意志是无原因的。意志是有原因的,而且我们都,呃,愿意承认意志是有原因的——当我们试图以某种方式教育孩子,从而
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17:49
influence their behavior or enact laws to discourage criminals or we uh we try to get you try to get votes people try to sell things all these are cases of of cause causing uh people to will but they're the freedom of their will remains insofar as their activity uh is the result of a causal chain one link of which is the willing and that willing can be itself caused it is given you to hold these views how do you see the traditional body-mind problem I mean let me just remind uh viewers of what that is I mean I've said earlier that most people seem to take a dualist view of reality uh the view that everything in the universe consists ultimately of either minds or bodies that there are both kinds of entity and that has given rise to a traditional problem which no one has ever come up with a thoroughly satisfactory solution to it that is the question how are these incorporeal or abstract non-material Minds able to actually move and push about the material bodies now it's clear that you since you don't believe in the
影响他们的行为,或者制定法律来遏制犯罪,或者我们,呃,我们去争取选票、人们去推销东西,所有这些都是使人产生意愿的因果案例。但只要他们的行为呃,是某个因果链的结果,而这个链条中的一环就是意愿,那么他们意志的自由就依然存在,而那个意愿本身可以是有原因的既然你持这些观点,你怎么看传统的身心问题呢?我是说,让我先向,呃,观众们提一下那是什么。我前面说过,大多数人似乎对实在持二元论的观点,呃,即认为宇宙中的一切归根结底要么由心灵、要么由身体构成,两类实体都存在。而这就引出了一个传统的问题,从来没有人对它给出过完全令人满意的解答,那就是这样一个问题:这些非肉体的、抽象的、非物质的心灵,怎么可能真的推动和挪动物质的身体?现在很清楚既然你不相信心灵作为独立于身体的东西而存在,这个问题对你来说就不会以那种形式
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07行为主义作为心理术语的合法化
19:08
existence of Minds as independently embodies the problem does not present itself to you in that form do you uh given your views do you simply bypass the Mind Body problem totally um no um as you said about it the my uh the body mind problem doesn't exist in that form for me uh there's no longer that problem of interaction and in fact it's uh in order to eliminate the problem in that Forum uh that I uh that I opt for physicalism however the problem then arises um how are we to talk about all these uh ordinarily so-called metal events and mental activity uh this flux of experience um if we're not recognizing Minds not recognizing mental entities um it's no good trying to paraphrase all this into a neurological terms because it would take too much in the way of detailed uh understanding of the mechanism of the nervous system now there's a there's a as a first step a quick easy solution to that one's uh May simply keep the mentalistic terminology but regard all these terms as terms applicable to bodies and to the activity
出现。那么,呃,按照你的观点,你是不是干脆完全绕开了身心问题?嗯,不是。嗯,正如你所说,我的,呃身心问题对我来说不以那种形式存在,呃,不再有那种相互作用的问题。事实上,呃,正是为了消除那种形式的问题,呃,我才,我才选择物理主义。然而随之而来的问题是,嗯我们该如何谈论所有这些,呃,通常所谓的心理事件和心理活动,呃,这股经验之流嗯,如果我们不承认心灵、不承认心理实体的话。嗯,试图把这一切改写成神经学的术语是行不通的,因为那需要对神经系统的机制有太多详尽的,呃,了解那么,作为第一步,对此有一个快速简便的解决办法,呃,就是干脆保留心理主义的术语,但把所有这些术语都看作适用于物体、适用于物体活动的术语。这很容易,某种意义上说太容易了
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20:32
of bodies this is easy this is too easy in a way because there's another point about the uh in favor of the physicalistic attitude which uh I haven't touched on up to now namely the advantage of intersubjectivity objectivity the data are not introspective data the data are shared care can be shared by other Observers uh it's because of this uh in large part at least that uh that the Natural Sciences have been so successful now and and introspective psychology has not been comparably successful well now if we simply take over all the concept conceptual apparatus of introspective psychology and mentalism and simply try to excuse it by saying all these uh attributes or activities of bodies we're no longer getting the benefit of the intersubjectivity of of Natural Science however there's a there's a way of coping with this difficulty and it is behaviorism in the sense of which I think behaviorism is important and and valuable I think its role the role of behaviorism um is the legitimation of mentalistic
因为支持物理主义态度还有另外一点,呃,我到目前为止还没有谈到,那就是主体间性、客观性的优势:数据不是内省的数据,而是可以共享的,可以由其他观察者共享。呃,至少在很大程度上,正是因为这一点,呃,自然科学才如此成功,而内省心理学则没有取得可与之相比的成功。那么现在,如果我们只是把内省心理学和心灵主义的全套概念工具照搬过来,只是辩解说这些都是,呃,物体的属性或活动那我们就再也享受不到自然科学那种主体间性的好处了。不过,有一种应对这个困难的办法,那就是行为主义。在这个意义上,我认为行为主义是重要而有价值的。我认为它的作用,行为主义的作用,嗯,是让心理主义的术语获得合法性,而不必绕道
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22:03
terms of without having to go through the the uh indirect and in fact impractical uh uh channel of of Neurology um criteria observable inter-subjectively observable criteria for mental States uh are found um in behavior in observable behavior that would include verbal Behavior including verbal Behavior yes and insofar as such criteria are available uh we do have the benefits of Natural Science after all and this is without uh full neurological explanation so the extent to which I'm a behaviorist is uh in seeing behaviorism as a way of making objective sense of metallistic Concepts I don't identify the metal states with the behavior I identify the mental States rather with uh neural States nor do I regard behavioral accounts as uh in the last analysis explanatory of the metal uh States mental phenomena I think the full explanation of these is to be found rather at the neurological level in other words if you're saying that behaviorism is not an explanation of the kind of problems of which the
呃,那条间接的、实际上不可行的,呃,神经学途径。嗯,心理状态的可观察的、主体间可观察的判据呃,可以在行为中、在可观察的行为中找到。这会包括言语行为吧?包括言语行为,是的而只要有这样的判据,呃,我们毕竟就享有了自然科学的好处,而且不需要,呃完整的神经学解释。所以我在多大程度上算是行为主义者,呃,就在于我把行为主义看作一种赋予心理主义概念客观意义的方式。我并不把心理状态等同于行为,我毋宁说是把心理状态等同于呃,神经状态。我也不认为行为主义的说明归根结底能解释心理状态、呃,心理现象我认为对这些的完整解释毋宁说要到神经学层面上去找。换句话说,你是在说行为主义并不是对哲学家所处理的那类问题的解释,而是一种表述这些问题的方式。我是说,它是一种
便签笔记
23:28
philosopher deals but a way of formulating them I mean it's a kind of language in which the problems should be couched or formulated before we then go on to try and provide Solutions exactly yes I think it would be helpful if we pause the moment at this point Professor Klein and if I try to recapitulate uh the ground that we've covered before we attempt any forward moves I started this discussion by asking you what you regarded as the as the central tasks of philosophy and you you not only said what you thought philosophers ought to be doing you also said what you thought they ought not to be doing and you ruled out a number of questions but you you grouped the questions that you thought philosophers ought to concern themselves with under two main heads first head being questions about what exists what does reality consist of and the second group being what can we know about this and how can we know and what can we say about it and so on now from that point onwards we've been pursuing the first of
语言,问题应当先用这种语言来表达或表述,然后我们再接着去尝试提供解答。正是如此是的。我想我们此刻稍作停顿会有帮助,蒯因教授,让我来试着概括一下,呃我们已经谈过的内容,然后再往下推进。我一开始就问你,你把什么看作哲学的核心任务,而你不仅说了你认为哲学家应该做什么,还说了你认为他们不应该做什么,你排除掉了一些问题,但你把你认为哲学家应该关注的问题归到了两大标题之下,第一个标题也就是关于'存在什么''实在由什么构成'的问题,第二组则是我们能对此知道些什么,以及我们如何能知道、我们能就此说些什么,等等。从那时起,我们一直在探讨这两组问题中的第一组,
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08抽象对象与基本粒子的同等地位
24:28
those uh those two groups of questions and you've said that in your view your view of reality is physicalist you think all reality consists in physical entities that there are not Minds separate from physical entities and that the notion that there are leads us into all sorts of conceptual confusions which you think uh a behaviorist analysis liberates us from I'd like us know to to start going over to questions of the second kind because we were beginning to get into them already and that's why I thought it time to stop and reassess where we were can we now move into the second area of how we acquire knowledge of this physical world in which we find ourselves good um one one correction would make though um my position is not that there are only physical objects there are also abstract objects but these abstract objects are not mental it's important but they're not section isn't it you don't believe in the existence of Minds at separate from physical things but you do believe in the existence of certain abstract
呃,这两组问题中的第一组。您说过,按您的看法,您对实在的看法是物理主义的,您认为一切实在都由物理实体构成,并不存在独立于物理实体的心灵;而认为存在这种心灵的观念会把我们引入种种概念上的混乱,您认为行为主义的分析可以把我们从中解放出来。现在我想让我们开始转向第二类问题,因为我们其实已经开始触及它们了,所以我才觉得该停下来重新梳理一下我们进行到哪里了。我们现在能不能进入第二个领域,即我们如何获得关于我们身处其中的这个物理世界的知识?好的,不过我想先做一点更正:我的立场并不是说只存在物理对象,还存在抽象对象,但这些抽象对象不是心灵性的,这一点很重要,它们并不是心灵性的,对吧。您不相信存在独立于物理事物的心灵,但您确实相信存在某些抽象实体。是的,尤其是数。不过我想您得稍微解释一下:如果您是一个物理主义者,您怎么能
便签笔记
25:33
entities yes numbers notably but I think you need to explain that a bit if you are a physicalist how can you justify your belief in the existence of abstract entities at all the um the status of sets or classes in numbers and functions I think from the again not not from the point of view of the predicated side of philosophy uh is uh not basically different from the status of hypothetical entities such as Elementary particles in physics uh in both cases it's a matter of framing hypotheses which uh imply are of past observations which imply future observations under uh under uh specifiable conditions uh which uh would uh then serve to corroborate or refute these hypotheses and these General hypotheses uh contain reference not only to the ordinary ordinary observable objects but also to many auxiliary objects we might say in the way of unobservable physical particles and also in the way of numbers and functions because these come into the formulations into the hypotheses of a quantitative kind
为您相信抽象实体的存在作辩护呢?嗯,集合或类、数和函数的地位,我认为——还是说,不是从哲学中谓词那一面来看——呃,它们的地位与物理学中诸如基本粒子这类假设性实体的地位并没有根本区别。呃,这两种情况都是在构建假说,这些假说蕴含过去的观察,也蕴含未来的观察——在呃、在可指明的条件下——呃,这些观察随后就可以用来证实或反驳这些假说。而这些一般性的假说,呃,不仅指涉普通的、可观察的对象,也指涉许多我们不妨称之为辅助性的对象,比如不可观察的物理粒子,也比如数和函数,因为这些东西会进入定量假说的表述之中;甚至还有类或集合——生物学家谈论生物的属和种,
便签笔记
27:05
and even classes or sets of the the biologist speaks of general and species of of organisms and all these entities are uh Furniture of the of the world uh posited on an equal footing in our system of the world what do you say on an equal footing but it does seem to me that there is a very important difference between the sense in which subatomic particles are unobservable and the sense in which say numbers are unobservable and subatomic particles are bits of stuff but it just so happens perhaps because of the accident of our Optical apparatus that they're bits of stuff which are too small for us to see but if we had microscopic eyes or super microscopic eyes perhaps we could see them and if we had different kinds of fingers we could pick them up I mean they are bits of material but numbers aren't bits of material however small are they I mean they are as it were abstract through and through there is nothing but abstraction to them it's true that they there's this discount annuity but the continuity of ordinary
谈论有机体,而所有这些实体,呃,都是世界的'家具',呃,在我们的世界体系中是被平等地设定的。您说是平等的,但在我看来,亚原子粒子之所以不可观察,和比方说数之所以不可观察,这两种意义之间似乎有一个非常重要的区别。亚原子粒子是一小块东西,只不过碰巧——也许是由于我们视觉器官的偶然性——它们是小到我们看不见的东西;但如果我们有显微镜般的眼睛,或者超级显微镜般的眼睛,也许我们就能看见它们;如果我们有另一种手指,我们就能把它们捡起来。我的意思是,它们是物质的一小块,可数并不是物质的一小块,不管多小,对吧?我的意思是,它们可以说是彻头彻尾抽象的,除了抽象之外什么也没有。确实存在这种不连续性,但普通可观察对象
便签笔记
28:16
observable objects with the uh Elementary particles uh uh is rather more attenuous than uh had once been supposed because an elementary particle is too small for instance even in principle to be uh detected by by light because it's uh because it's a smaller than any uh any wavelength furthermore the behavior of the elementary particles is basically unlike that of a larger of bodies so much so that it says I think only by courtesy that they're called uh material of the the indeterminacy with respect to whether two segments of the uh to segments of Paths of an electron are segments of path of the same electron or two different ones into term indeterminacies of a position the the antithesis between wave and corpuscle as a uh in the interpretation of light and other anomalies something called the Bose Einstein statistic all suggests that uh the analogy of body is an analogy that was useful for extrapolation up to a point but then the uh the reshuffling the the evolution of hypotheses in the light of further
与呃基本粒子之间的连续性,呃,比人们曾经设想的要稀薄得多,因为一个基本粒子太小了,比如说,甚至在原则上都无法呃用光来探测到,因为它呃,因为它比任何呃、任何波长都要小。此外,基本粒子的行为与较大物体的行为根本不同,以至于我认为说它们是'物质的'只是一种宽容的说法:关于电子路径的两个片段究竟是同一个电子路径的片段还是两个不同电子的片段,存在着不确定性;位置的不确定性;在对光的解释中波与微粒之间的对立;以及其他反常现象,还有所谓的玻色-爱因斯坦统计——所有这些都表明,呃,物体的类比是一种在一定程度上有助于外推的类比,但随后,呃,在进一步的实验和进一步的反驳的推动下,假说的重新洗牌、
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09意义、翻译与必然性的消解
29:48
experimentation and further refutations I have finally uh carried us to the point where these uh where the the continuity is no longer so evident I I would like to leave at that particular point there Professor Klein because I want to step back three Paces in our discussion and take up something which strikes me as being a very much more general interest that we were talking about a moment ago and then we got slightly sidetracked and I think it was partly my fault that we did I want to go back to the point where you were saying or suggesting anyway that the adoption of a physicalist approach to reality or a behaviorist analysis A behaviorist where formulating problems has the effect of liberating you from the spell of certain entrenched ways of looking at things which though they may be part of Common Sense are nevertheless mistaken now that's the point I want to take you up at can you say what some of the entrenched ideas are from which you believe your approach would liberate us good um
假说的演进,最终呃把我们带到了这样一个地步:这些呃,这种连续性已经不再那么明显了。我,我想就在这个地方打住,蒯因教授,因为我想在我们的讨论中往回退三步,谈一谈在我看来兴趣要普遍得多的一件事,就是我们刚才谈到的那个话题,后来我们稍微跑题了,我想这部分是我的责任。我想回到您刚才说的、或者说暗示的那一点:采取一种物理主义的实在观,或者一种行为主义的分析、一种行为主义的问题表述方式,其效果是把您从某些根深蒂固的看待事物的方式的魔咒中解放出来,这些方式尽管可能属于常识,却仍然是错误的。这就是我想接着追问的一点。您能说说这些根深蒂固的观念中有哪些是您认为您的方法能把我们从中解放出来的吗?好的,嗯,'解放'是一种看法,'更严苛的纪律'是看待
便签笔记
30:52
Liberation is one way of looking at it a Sterner discipline is another way of looking at behaviorism uh but at any rate uh a a major example is the notion of meaning the the um there's the Common Sense notion that word somehow convey meanings how do we know that these that the same words convey the same meaning to two uh speakers we can see that the speakers react in the same way all this is describable in behavioral terms but might the meanings themselves be different yet what behavioral sense can be made of the question no behavioral sense no adequate behavioral sense has been made of it there are other Notions that uh come similarly into question translation once the notion of meaning is questioned uh the um notion of translation becomes more complex we can no longer say it's simply a matter of producing another another sentence it has the same meaning as the sentence that's being translated um the the notion of necessity again comes into question um the well there are two kinds of Necessities
行为主义的另一种看法。不过无论如何,呃,一个主要的例子就是意义这个概念。嗯,常识观念认为词语以某种方式传达意义。我们怎么知道同样的词对两个说话者传达的是同样的意义呢?我们能看到这些说话者以同样的方式作出反应,这一切都可以用行为的术语来描述;但意义本身会不会仍然是不同的呢?可这个问题又能有什么行为上的意义呢?没有行为上的意义,人们没有为它给出过任何充分的行为上的意义。还有另一些概念呃同样受到质疑,比如翻译。一旦意义这个概念受到质疑,呃,嗯,翻译这个概念就变得更复杂了。我们不能再说翻译不过就是造出另一个句子,使它和被翻译的句子具有相同的意义。嗯,必然性这个概念也同样受到质疑。嗯,好吧,必然性有两种,
便签笔记
32:12
yes they're logical and causal yes the one uh commonly has uh understood as necessity by virtue of the meanings of the words the sentence is true by virtue of the meanings of the words that it contains uh this uh characterization uh goes by the board if the notion of meaning does uh then there's the uh notion of physical necessity um especially by virtual physical law that this doesn't depend in the same way on meaning but by somehow the same sort of Scruples it also becomes uh questionable the uh it's not clear that there's a not clear to me that there's a difference between um a general truth uh truth in the form of a general proposition general statement which uh just happens to be true and one that is a law the uh the the term not necessary the adverb necessarily is in very common use and that suggests that perhaps people have a distinction in mind between two sorts of Truth the necessary and The Accidental or contingent but I think the use of the uh the ordinary use of of that word
是的,逻辑的和因果的。是的。前一种呃通常被理解为凭借词语的意义而来的必然性:这个句子凭借它所包含的词语的意义而为真。呃,这个呃刻画,呃,如果意义这个概念站不住脚,它也就站不住脚了。呃,然后是呃物理必然性的概念,嗯,尤其是凭借物理定律而来的必然性,它不是以同样的方式依赖于意义,但出于呃某种同样的顾虑,它也变得呃可疑起来。呃,并不清楚——至少在我看来不清楚——嗯,一个一般性的真理,呃,一个以一般命题、一般陈述形式出现、呃碰巧为真的真理,和一个作为定律的真理之间有什么区别。呃,'必然'这个词,副词'必然地'用得非常普遍,这似乎表明人们心里也许有一个区分,区分两种真理:必然的和偶然的。但我认为这个词的呃日常用法可以用别的方式来解释。我认为,呃,它是依赖于情境、依赖于语境的:一个人
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10蒯因的暂定本体论与谓词标准
33:42
can be explained otherwise I think it's uh it's dependent on situation on context once says necessarily and follows it with a sentence or when he's when he thinks that the other person is bound to admit it because of what he already has committed himself to or because he may be presumed to believe uh and uh that uh this will vary with the context for calling into the question such very fundamental Notions of our thinking as uh causal necessity logical necessity the idea of a law uh the notion of meaning yes the ground is beginning to disappear from under our feet and I think what I would like to do at this stage Professor Quan is ask you to characterize for us as a whole the kind of view of the world that we're coming out with uh can can you good well now uh let's proceed Again by the uh in terms of that dichotomy between the ontological and the predicate predicational um on the ontological side uh of what I am accepting assuming uh surprise physical objects the physical object being construed
说'必然地'并接着说出一个句子,是在他认为对方不得不承认这句话的时候——因为对方已经作出的承诺,或者因为可以推定对方相信某些东西。呃,而且呃这会随语境而变化。既然把我们思维中如此根本的概念都提到问题上来了——呃因果必然性、逻辑必然性、定律的观念、呃意义的概念——是的,我们脚下的地面开始消失了。我想在这个阶段我想做的,蒯因教授,是请您为我们整体地刻画一下我们最后得出的是一种什么样的世界观。呃,您能不能……好的,那么,呃,我们还是按照本体论和谓词方面这个二分法来进行吧。嗯,在本体论这一面,呃,我所接受、所假定的,呃,是物理对象,而物理对象被相当呃宽泛地理解为时空中任何一部分——无论多么零散、多么不连续——的内容,
便签笔记
35:01
quite uh generously as the content of any portion however scattered and discontinuous of space-time and all classes of such things and all classes are such classes and so on uh and mathematicians have known uh discovered over the past Century how all talk of numbers and functions and other mathematical uh uh entities can be paraphrased into Talk of the pure set theory of classes classes classes of classes appropriate ones can be made to do the work of numbers and the functions and the rest so we need these on the other hand these are abstract objects that I accept there are others that I would reject properties I would reject because there's a question of there's the question in what circumstances do to descriptions to characterizations determine the same property uh and uh in what circumstances do they determine different properties we just happen to be properties of all the same things in chart of individuation identification of properties and it's ordinarily said that to two two Clauses let's say two phrases
以及所有这类东西的类,以及所有这些类的类,如此等等。呃,数学家们在过去一个世纪里已经知道、呃发现了,关于数、函数以及其他数学呃呃实体的一切谈论,都可以改写成纯粹的类的集合论的谈论:类、类的类,恰当地选取,就可以承担起数、函数以及其余东西的工作。所以我们需要这些。另一方面,这些是我所接受的抽象对象,还有一些是我会拒斥的。属性我会拒斥,因为存在这样一个问题:在什么情况下两个描述、两个刻画决定同一个属性,呃,而在什么情况下它们决定不同的属性——比如它们碰巧是同样一些事物的属性。这就是属性的个体化、同一性的判据问题。通常人们说,两个从句、比方说两个短语,如果具有相同的意义,就决定同一个属性。但当然,如果我们不接受意义这个概念,
便签笔记
36:24
determine the same property if they have the same meaning but of course this characterization goes by the board if we don't accept the notion of meaning in the case of classes this problem of identification does not arise because classes are are identical simply if they have the same members uh properties I I'm persuaded are dispensable in science it's not clear how to dispense with the classes so this uh would be my tentative ontology and I would regard it as part of Science and subject to the infallibility of the rest of science namely the individuals and the hierarchy of classes and classes of classes and so on build upon them the individuals being physical objects on the on the predicative side of uh my view is I think mainly rather negative it's one of uh rejecting uh predicates that that have too little in the way of of Behavioral or let's say of observable uh criteria for their application or failing that uh I think one one we must also accept theoretical predicates which don't admit of observable of
这个刻画也就站不住脚了。在类的情况下,这个同一性问题不会出现,因为两个类只要有相同的成员就是同一个类。呃,属性,我确信在科学中是可有可无的;但并不清楚如何摆脱类。所以这呃就是我暂定的本体论,我会把它看作科学的一部分,并且和科学的其余部分一样是可错的:也就是个体,以及在它们之上建立起来的类、类的类等等的层级,而个体就是物理对象。在呃谓词这一面,我的看法我想主要相当消极:它在于呃拒斥那些呃在行为的、或者说在可观察的呃应用判据方面太过贫乏的谓词;或者说,如果做不到这一点,呃,我想我们也必须接受那些不容许有可观察的、
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11语义上升:为何要谈论词语
37:47
observational criteria but there one must insist on there being um pretty firmly related to uh predicates of the observation observational kind through laws uh hypotheses better uh General uh physical Theory which makes for uh a uh well-knit system of the world which expedites prediction so that I would uh insist not that predicates have a uh have necessary and sufficient conditions in observation but that they have a good share in the way of observable um criteria symptoms of application or that they uh play a quite a promising role in the theoretical hypotheses one thing that pleases me very much about the discussion that we've had is that none of it so far has been specifically about language or about words and I say that because a lot of intelligent laymen who begin to take an interest in philosophy are sometimes put off by what they take to be the discovery that modern philosophers are doing nothing but talking about words talking about terms analyzing sentences statements and so on and you haven't
观察上的判据的理论性谓词,但在那里必须坚持它们要嗯相当牢固地通过定律、呃更确切地说是假说、呃一般的呃物理理论,与观察性的谓词联系起来,从而构成一个呃紧密结合的世界体系,它能促进预测。所以我坚持的不是谓词必须有呃在观察中的充分必要条件,而是它们要在可观察的嗯应用判据、症候方面占有相当的份额,或者它们呃在理论假说中扮演相当有前景的角色。我们这场讨论中有一点让我非常高兴,那就是到目前为止的内容都不是专门关于语言或关于词语的。我这么说,是因为很多开始对哲学产生兴趣的有知识的外行人有时会感到扫兴,因为他们以为自己发现现代哲学家除了谈论词语什么也不做——谈论词项、分析句子、陈述等等。而您完全
便签笔记
39:13
talked in that way at all and it's quite clear the problems with which you are concerned are not problems about language nevertheless uh someone opening your books uh or a student coming to study with you at Harvard for the first time would find that a great deal of your technique of approach to these problems is via the analysis of Concepts and therefore careful attention towards the elucidation of sentences and statements and so on um why is it that you and other contemporary philosophers adopt this linguistic approach to what are after all essentially non-linguistic problems one one reason is a strategy that I call somatic ascent a-s-c-e-n-t um philosophical issues uh are often concerned with very fundamental traits of one's conceptual scheme and if two philosophers disagree on such points it's difficult for them to discuss their disagreement without each of them begging the question because it's hard to reason and argue without making use of the fundamental principles of One's Own conceptual scheme
没有那样谈论,很清楚,您所关心的问题并不是关于语言的问题。不过呢,呃,一个人翻开您的书,呃,或者一个学生第一次到哈佛来跟您学习,会发现您处理这些问题的技术在很大程度上是通过概念分析进行的,因而要仔细关注句子和陈述的阐明等等。嗯,为什么您和其他当代哲学家会对说到底本质上是非语言的问题采取这种语言学的进路呢?一个原因是我称之为'语义上升'(semantic ascent,a-s-c-e-n-t)的策略。嗯,哲学问题呃常常涉及一个人概念框架中非常根本的特征,如果两位哲学家在这类问题上意见不合,他们很难在讨论分歧时不各自犯窃取论题的毛病,因为不动用自己概念框架中的根本原则,就很难进行推理和论证。而避免、呃或者说尽量减少这一困难的一个办法,呃,就是呃
便签笔记
12三个待突破的问题
40:25
and a way of avoiding or or some of minimizing this difficulty uh is uh the device of moving up one step semantically and talking about words instead of using the words to talk about the things and if one makes this move then one can talk about the rival systems as systems of sentences one can compare them in point of Simplicity and uh endpoint of inclusiveness and make a judgment on a on a shared basis without the circularity the question banking we're coming to the end of our discussion now Professor crime but I would like just before we do literally end I'd like to ask you if you can say anything at all uh perhaps in the light of the discussion we'd head up to this point about what you are currently working on I I have to ask you to be briefer than I would like because we have so little time left I would like you before we end to say something about what you're doing original work on that well um and president I'm uh I've been writing short things in an effort to elucidate some of the points already in
在语义上向上移一步,去谈论词语,而不是用这些词语去谈论事物。如果一个人这么做了,那么他就可以把相互竞争的体系当作句子的体系来谈论,可以在简单性方面、呃在包容性方面对它们进行比较,从而在一个共同的基础上作出判断,而不会有那种循环、那种窃取论题的问题。蒯因教授,我们的讨论快要结束了,但在真正结束之前,我想请您说说——也许结合我们到目前为止的讨论——您目前正在研究什么。我不得不请您说得比我希望的更简短些,因为我们剩下的时间太少了。我希望在结束之前,您能谈谈您正在做的原创性工作。嗯,眼下我,呃,我一直在写一些短文章,试图阐明我呃在其他著作中已经提出的一些观点,或者把它们加以扩展
便签笔记
41:43
my uh in my other writings or to extend and improve them but there are several uh problems on which I would like to see someone make breakthroughs one of them is connected with language uh namely the development of some conceptual scheme to take the place of the untenable old-fashioned theory of meaning uh something new and uh something more acceptable in the way of theory of what goes into good translation for instance um this is a a job perhaps for linguists but it's something with a philosophical interest and it's a job also where someone with a philosophical curiosity is apt to be helpful to the linguist a second one is related rather to psychology uh I should like to see a concept a system of Concepts developed which would do the work of the old mentalistic idioms of propositional attitude X believes that p x regrets that p e x hopes that b the sort of thing these idioms are subject to some subtle logical difficulties and complications and they're very wanting in large part of their applications wanting in
和改进。不过有几个呃问题,我希望能看到有人取得突破。其中一个与语言有关,呃,就是发展出某种概念框架,来取代那个站不住脚的、老派的意义理论;呃,某种新的、呃在诸如'什么构成好的翻译'这类理论方面更可接受的东西。嗯,这也许是语言学家的活儿,但它具有哲学上的意趣,而且在这项工作中一个有哲学好奇心的人往往能对语言学家有所帮助。第二个问题更多地与心理学有关。呃,我希望看到有人发展出一套概念、一套概念体系,能承担起那些旧的心灵主义的命题态度习语的工作——'X 相信 p''X 后悔 p''X 希望 p'这类东西。这些习语会遇到一些微妙的逻辑困难和复杂性,而且在它们的大部分应用中都很缺乏、缺乏充分的行为判据。我希望
便签笔记
42:58
adequate behavioral criteria I should like to see for not for General discourse but for scientific purposes uh some apparatus of which would uh be of which would serve the same purposes as these and be free of those faults the third is related rather to mathematics now the uh somewhat somewhat begrudgingly when I accept I accept um the apparatus of uh abstract objects sets and the rest um as our exhilarated science because it seems to be needed but I should like to see a a a minimum basis an economical basis uh and a a and and a very clear clearly intelligible basis uh for uh for set theory which was adequate just barely adequate to so much mathematics as is needed in Natural Science and it might be that if this were developed it would among other things uh give us a more intuitive uh understanding of the so-called paradoxes the antinomies of set theory and their solution such things as Russell's Paradox which are familiar to some of our viewers I'm sure and not to all so that might be a good
看到——不是为了一般的言谈,而是为了科学的目的——呃,有某种机制,能呃、能起到和这些习语同样的作用,同时又没有那些毛病。第三个问题更多地与数学有关。现在,呃,我多少、多少有些不情愿地接受了,我接受了嗯抽象对象、集合以及其余那些东西的这套机制,嗯,把它作为我们科学的一部分,因为它似乎是必需的;但我希望看到一个、一个最小的基础、一个经济的基础,呃,以及一个、一个以及一个非常清晰、明白易懂的集合论基础,它足以——刚刚好足以——支撑起自然科学所需要的那么多数学。而且有可能,如果这一点被发展起来,它除了别的作用之外,还能让我们更直观地理解所谓的悖论,即集合论中的二律背反,以及它们的解决办法,比如罗素悖论这类东西,我相信我们的一些观众对此并不陌生,但也不是所有人都了解。所以那也许是个不错的起点。好了,我们得就此打住了,
便签笔记
44:18
place to start well we will have to stop thank you very much Professor Kwan
非常感谢您,Quine 教授。
便签笔记
视频总结 · 一句话概括与核心要点

一句话概括

1978年Bryan Magee与哈佛哲学家蒯因(W. V. O. Quine)对谈:蒯因主张哲学是科学的延续,在本体论上持物理主义并接纳集合等抽象对象、否认独立心灵,在认识论上以行为主义为"表述语言",并由此质疑意义、翻译、必然性、自然律等根深蒂固的常识概念。

核心要点

  • 哲学与科学连续,只在一般性与抽象度上不同:蒯因拒绝"哲学为科学奠定坚实基础"的想法,称之为"空梦",认为科学中许多部分比哲学更牢靠。科学是从历史、工程到数学、哲学的连续体;物理学问"A是否导致B",哲学问"说任何东西导致任何东西是什么意思";动物学家说有袋熊、物理学家说有电子,哲学家则问"总共有哪些种类的东西存在"。
  • "世界为何开始、生命为何开始"是伪问题:"如何开始"归物理学、天文学、生物学;"为何"则无法想象答案长什么样,因而无意义。
  • 哲学问题分两大类:本体论问题(有什么、存在意味着什么)与谓述/认识论问题(关于存在之物能有意义地问什么、知道什么、说什么)。
  • 物理主义而非唯心论或二元论:蒯因站在"唯物"一边——物理对象独立于我们而存在;心灵只是物理对象(主要是人)的属性或活动,思想、决定、情绪本身就是大脑与神经系统中的微观物理变化,而非仅"伴随"这些变化。理由是自然科学的封闭性预设——"没有微观物理属性在时空中的分布变化,就没有任何变化"——不允许外部影响侵入,且科学的成功要求认真对待其预设。
  • 二元论盛行的解释:梦境中心身似乎分离;泰勒斯说"万物充满神灵",原始民族普遍是万物有灵论者;甚至"因果""力"等科学核心概念可能起源于个人的用力、推动之感。物理主义是晚近科学的产物,在人类史上属于反常态。Magee反驳称人们真正的依据是对内在意识流的直接体验;蒯因回应:不否认其存在,只是将其重构为身体的活动,且"从外部不可观察"并不特别——物理学假设的微观结构同样不可直接观察。
  • 自由意志问题源于混淆:意志自由指人在能力与限制范围内常能做自己意愿之事;不意味着"意志能自由地意愿其所愿"(那是胡话),也不意味着意志无因。教育儿童、立法惩戒、拉选票、推销商品都是在"引起"意愿,但只要行动是含"意愿"这一环节的因果链之结果,自由就仍然成立。
  • 行为主义是"合法化"心灵词汇的手段,而非解释:传统心身交互问题在物理主义下消失,但直接把心灵话语翻译成神经学不可行。行为主义的价值在于为心理状态提供主体间可观察的标准(含言语行为),从而享有自然科学的客观性——内省心理学正因缺乏这一点而不成功。蒯因明确不把心理状态等同于行为,而是等同于神经状态;最终解释在神经学层面,行为主义只是问题应被表述的语言。
  • 接纳抽象对象但拒斥属性(properties):本体论包括物理对象(宽泛定义为时空中任意分散、不连续区域的内容)以及类、类的类等;数学家已证明数、函数可改写为纯集合论。集合与物理学中的基本粒子地位相同——都是假设性实体,用于把过去观察与未来观察联系起来。Magee质疑粒子是"太小的物质"而数纯属抽象,蒯因反驳:基本粒子小于任何光波长、原则上不可见,且其行为(同一性不确定、位置不确定、波粒二象性、玻色-爱因斯坦统计)与宏观物体根本不同,称之为"物质"只是出于礼貌。属性则因缺乏同一性标准(何时两个描述决定同一属性?通常诉诸"同义",而意义概念已被弃)被排除,而类只要成员相同即同一。
  • 行为主义视角动摇一系列核心概念:意义(两人对同一词的"意义"是否相同无法赋予行为意义)、翻译(不再是"产出同义句")、逻辑必然性("凭词义为真"随意义概念一同瓦解)、物理必然性/自然律(看不出"恰好为真的普遍命题"与"定律"有何区别)。"必然地"一词的日常用法可按语境解释:说话者认为对方基于已承诺或可推定相信的内容必须承认。
  • "语义上升"解释为何用语言分析处理非语言问题:哲学分歧常涉及概念框架最根本的特征,直接争论难免循环论证;上升一级谈论词语而非用词语谈论事物,就能把对立系统当作句子系统,在简单性、包容性上进行共享基础的比较。

结论与值得注意的细节

  • 蒯因期待的三个突破方向:(1)取代站不住脚的旧意义理论、说明何为好翻译的新概念框架,需要哲学家与语言学家合作;(2)为科学目的构造一套替代"X相信p / X后悔p / X希望p"等命题态度习语的概念系统,因这些习语有微妙逻辑困难且缺乏行为标准;(3)一个最小、经济、清晰可理解的集合论基础,"刚好够"自然科学所需的数学,或可对罗素悖论等集合论二律背反给出更直观的理解。
  • 蒯因对抽象对象的接纳是"有些勉强"的,只因其似乎必不可少;他把本体论视为科学的一部分,与科学其余部分同样可错。
  • 谓述侧的立场主要是否定性的:拒绝缺乏可观察标准的谓词;理论谓词可以接受,但须通过定律与观察谓词紧密关联,形成便于预测的紧密世界体系。
  • Magee在开场称,若在哲学教师中投票"最重要的在世哲学家",蒯因必在前六名;他生于1908年,代表作为《从逻辑的观点看》(1953)与《语词与对象》(1960),首要身份是逻辑学家,后期才更公开转向一般哲学。
  • 讨论中Magee两次主动"倒回"以重整线索,蒯因也主动纠正一次:"我的立场不是只有物理对象,还有抽象对象,但抽象对象不是心灵的。"
核心句型 · 9
1. I think of X as … (continuous with / a part of) Y
“I think of philosophy as continuous with science even as a part of science”
用 think of A as B 表达对某事物的定位,even as 再进一步加强。适合陈述自己的理论立场,仿写:I think of writing as continuous with thinking, even as a part of it.
2. whereas A will tell us that…, B will tell us that…, C is interested rather in…
“Whereas the zoologists will tell us that there are wombats and the physicists will tell us that there are electrons … the philosopher is interested rather in what sorts of things there are altogether”
并列几个对照案例后用 rather 引出真正的重点,是分析型说明的常用结构,可用于区分不同学科或角色的关注点。
3. I can't imagine what an answer would look like
“I can't imagine what an answer would look like”
委婉但有力地说明一个问题是无意义的:不是「答案不知道」,而是「连答案的样子都无法设想」。用于否定伪问题。
4. X does not mean that …; it means rather that …
“Freedom of the will does not mean that the will is free to will as it will … and it doesn't mean that the will is uncaused”
先排除错误理解,再给出正确解释。对澄清概念、消除混淆特别有用,仿写:Learning does not mean memorizing; it means being able to use.
5. It's in order to … that I opt for …
“It's in order to eliminate the problem in that form that I opt for physicalism”
强调句式突调目的:正是为了……我才选择……。适合解释理论选择的动机。
6. I don't identify A with B; I identify A rather with C
“I don't identify the metal states with the behavior I identify the mental States rather with neural States”
否定—肯定对比结构,精确区分自己的立场与相近但不同的立场,避免被贴错标签。
7. once X is questioned, Y becomes …
“Once the notion of meaning is questioned the notion of translation becomes more complex”
表达一个概念动摇后的连锁后果,适合论证概念之间的依赖关系。
8. not that …, but that …
“I would insist not that predicates have necessary and sufficient conditions in observation but that they have a good share in the way of observable criteria”
insist not that A but that B:先否定较强的要求,再给出较弱但准确的要求,表达有分寸的主张。
9. I should like to see someone make breakthroughs on …
“There are several problems on which I would like to see someone make breakthroughs”
提出开放问题、邀请后人研究的谦逊表达,should like 是较正式的英式用法。
词汇精讲 · 99 · 按出现顺序
lay pretty short odds phr. 0:11
押很低的赔率;表示对某事非常有把握
innumerable /ɪˈnuːmərəbəl/ adj. 0:11
数不清的,无数的
logician /loʊˈdʒɪʃən/ n. 0:11
逻辑学家
Layman /ˈleɪmən/ n. 0:11
外行,门外汉
overtly /oʊˈvɜːrtli/ adv. 1:18
公开地,明显地
round out phr. v. 1:18
使完整,补全
aspire to phr. v. 1:18
渴望达到,追求
continuous with phr. 1:18
与……连续、相接(哲学中指没有本质分界)
Continuum /kənˈtɪnjuəm/ n. 2:31
连续体,连续统
Pursuits /pərˈsuːts/ n. 2:31
(学术)追求,事业,研究活动
prime numbers n. 2:31
素数,质数
connective tissue n. 2:31
结缔组织;此处比喻贯穿一切思想的连接结构
subatomic /ˌsʌbəˈtɑːmɪk/ adj. 3:43
亚原子的
conjectures /kənˈdʒektʃərz/ n. 3:43
猜想,推测
pseudo /ˈsuːdoʊ/ adj. 3:43
假的,伪的(pseudo questions 伪问题)
elucidation /ɪˌluːsɪˈdeɪʃən/ n. 4:52
阐明,解释
ontological /ˌɑːntəˈlɑːdʒɪkəl/ adj. 5:56
本体论的
predicated /ˈpredɪkeɪtɪd/ adj. 5:56
谓述的,谓词性的(关于能对事物说什么)
epistemology /ɪˌpɪstəˈmɑːlədʒi/ n. 5:56
认识论
cling to phr. v. 5:56
坚持,紧守(某种区分或立场)
doctrines /ˈdɑːktrɪnz/ n. 6:59
学说,教义
the 64 question phr. 6:59
关键问题,最重要的问题(源自美国广播问答节目的最高奖金)
attributes /ˈætrɪbjuːts/ n. 8:10
属性,特性
dualism /ˈduːəlɪzəm/ n. 8:10
二元论
categorially /ˌkætəˈɡɔːriəli/ adv. 8:10
在范畴上
soluble /ˈsɑːljəbəl/ adj. 9:25
可解决的
incursion /ɪnˈkɜːrʒən/ n. 9:25
入侵,侵入
to the effect that phr. 9:25
大意是,意思是
uncongenial /ˌʌnkənˈdʒiːniəl/ adj. 10:52
不合意的,难以接受的
presuppositions /ˌpriːsʌpəˈzɪʃənz/ n. 10:52
前提预设
inherent in phr. 10:52
内在于,固有于
construing /kənˈstruːɪŋ/ v. 12:02
解释,理解为(construe A as B)
animism /ˈænɪmɪzəm/ n. 12:02
万物有灵论
antidated /ˈæntideɪtɪd/ v. 12:02
早于,先于(=antedated)
inanimate /ɪnˈænɪmət/ adj. 12:02
无生命的
dissociation /dɪˌsoʊsiˈeɪʃən/ n. 13:33
分离,剥离
conducive to phr. 13:33
有助于,促成
Latter-Day /ˈlætər deɪ/ adj. 13:33
晚近的,现代的
manifest itself phr. 15:03
显现,表现出来
conjecturally /kənˈdʒektʃərəli/ adv. 15:03
靠推测地
account for phr. v. 15:03
解释,说明
neural /ˈnʊrəl/ adj. 16:20
神经的
uncaused /ʌnˈkɔːzd/ adj. 16:20
无原因的
enact laws phr. 17:49
制定法律
insofar as conj. 17:49
在……的范围内,只要
incorporeal /ˌɪnkɔːrˈpɔːriəl/ adj. 17:49
无形体的,非物质的
bypass /ˈbaɪpæs/ v. 19:08
绕开,回避
opt for phr. v. 19:08
选择
flux /flʌks/ n. 19:08
流动,不断变化
paraphrase /ˈpærəfreɪz/ v. 19:08
改写,用另一种方式表述
intersubjectivity /ˌɪntərsʌbdʒekˈtɪvəti/ n. 20:32
主体间性(可被多个观察者共同验证)
introspective /ˌɪntrəˈspektɪv/ adj. 20:32
内省的
legitimation /lɪˌdʒɪtɪˈmeɪʃən/ n. 20:32
合法化,正当化
criteria /kraɪˈtɪriə/ n. 22:03
判据,标准(单数 criterion)
in the last analysis phr. 22:03
归根结底,最终
couched /kaʊtʃt/ v. 23:28
(以某种语言)表述、措辞
recapitulate /ˌriːkəˈpɪtʃəleɪt/ v. 23:28
扼要重述,概括
liberates us from phr. 24:28
把我们从……中解放出来
hypothetical /ˌhaɪpəˈθetɪkəl/ adj. 25:33
假设的
corroborate /kəˈrɑːbəreɪt/ v. 25:33
证实,佐证
auxiliary /ɔːɡˈzɪljəri/ adj. 25:33
辅助的
posited /ˈpɑːzɪtɪd/ v. 27:05
设定,假定(存在)
on an equal footing phr. 27:05
处于平等地位
through and through phr. 27:05
彻头彻尾
attenuous /əˈtenjuəs/ adj. 28:16
稀薄的,微弱的(口误,意为 tenuous)
by courtesy phr. 28:16
出于礼貌/宽容(而非严格意义上)
indeterminacy /ˌɪndɪˈtɜːrmɪnəsi/ n. 28:16
不确定性
antithesis /ænˈtɪθəsɪs/ n. 28:16
对立,对照
corpuscle /ˈkɔːrpʌsəl/ n. 28:16
微粒
extrapolation /ɪkˌstræpəˈleɪʃən/ n. 28:16
外推
sidetracked /ˈsaɪdtrækt/ adj. 29:48
跑题的,偏离主题的
entrenched /ɪnˈtrentʃt/ adj. 29:48
根深蒂固的
take you up at phr. 29:48
就……追问你、接着谈
Sterner /ˈstɜːrnər/ adj. 30:52
更严厉的,更严苛的
by virtue of phr. 32:12
凭借,由于
goes by the board idiom 32:12
被抛弃,失效
Scruples /ˈskruːpəlz/ n. 32:12
顾虑,顾忌
contingent /kənˈtɪndʒənt/ adj. 32:12
偶然的,非必然的
dichotomy /daɪˈkɑːtəmi/ n. 33:42
二分法
set theory n. 35:01
集合论
individuation /ˌɪndɪˌvɪdʒuˈeɪʃən/ n. 35:01
个体化(区分个体的判据)
dispensable /dɪˈspensəbəl/ adj. 36:24
可有可无的
tentative /ˈtentətɪv/ adj. 36:24
暂定的,试探性的
hierarchy /ˈhaɪərɑːrki/ n. 36:24
层级
well-knit /ˌwel ˈnɪt/ adj. 37:47
紧密结合的
expedites /ˈekspədaɪts/ v. 37:47
促进,加快
necessary and sufficient conditions phr. 37:47
充分必要条件
put off phr. v. 37:47
使扫兴,使反感
begging the question phr. 39:13
窃取论题,循环论证(把待证结论当前提)
conceptual scheme n. 39:13
概念框架
in point of phr. 40:25
就……而言
circularity /ˌsɜːrkjəˈlærəti/ n. 40:25
循环性(论证的循环)
untenable /ʌnˈtenəbəl/ adj. 41:43
站不住脚的
idioms /ˈɪdiəmz/ n. 41:43
习语;(此处指)固定表达方式
propositional attitude n. 41:43
命题态度(相信、希望、后悔等)
apt to phr. 41:43
倾向于,容易
begrudgingly /bɪˈɡrʌdʒɪŋli/ adv. 42:58
不情愿地
antinomies /ænˈtɪnəmiz/ n. 42:58
二律背反,悖论
intelligible /ɪnˈtelɪdʒəbəl/ adj. 42:58
可理解的
理解自测 · 11 题
1. 蒯因如何定义哲学与科学的关系?他认为二者的差别在哪里?

蒯因认为哲学与科学是连续的,甚至就是科学的一部分,而不是独立于科学、为科学奠基的东西——他把「哲学为科学提供坚实基础」称为空想。在开头的对谈中他说,科学是一个连续体,一端是历史学和工程学,另一端是哲学和数学;哲学与其余科学只在普遍性和抽象程度上有差别。例如物理学研究具体事件之间的因果关系,哲学则追问「原因」本身是什么;动物学家说有袋熊,哲学家则问总体上存在哪些种类的东西。

2. 蒯因把哲学问题分成哪两大类?各自关心什么?

他分为本体论问题和谓述性问题。本体论问题关心「有什么存在」:存在哪些种类的事物,以及「存在」本身意味着什么。谓述性问题关心对存在之物我们能有意义地追问什么、能说些什么,认识论就包含在后者之中。这一区分出现在第 5 段,之后整场对谈就按这个顺序展开:先谈本体论(物理主义、心灵、抽象对象),再谈知识与语言(意义、必然性、谓词判据、语义上升)。

3. 蒯因希望看到有人在哪三个问题上取得突破?

在结尾他列出三个问题。第一与语言有关:发展一套概念框架来取代站不住脚的旧意义理论,特别是关于「什么构成好的翻译」的理论。第二与心理学有关:建立一套概念体系来替代「X 相信 p」「X 希望 p」这类命题态度习语,因为它们有微妙的逻辑困难且缺乏行为判据。第三与数学有关:为集合论找到一个最小的、经济的、清晰易懂的基础,刚好够支撑自然科学所需的数学,并可能借此更直观地理解罗素悖论等二律背反。

4. Magee 提到「64 美元问题」,这是什么意思?蒯因怎样回答?

「the 64 question」源自 1940 年代美国广播问答节目,最高奖金 64 美元,引申为最关键的问题。Magee 用它来问蒯因在唯物主义和唯心主义之间站哪一边。蒯因回答自己站在唯物主义一边,认为物理对象是真实的、外在并独立于我们而存在;但他立即补充说,自己并不认为只有物理对象,还有数学的抽象对象,同时他不承认心灵或心理实体的存在,除非把它们看作物理对象(主要是人)的属性或活动。

5. 蒯因反对二元论的核心论证是什么?请重构其推理链。

论证依赖「物理世界的因果封闭性」。前提一:人的决定会影响并决定他的身体动作,动作又影响其他物理对象。前提二:物理学坚持物理事件原则上都有物理原因,不允许物理世界之外的影响侵入。若心灵是非物质的独立实体却能引起身体运动,就违反前提二。因此决定本身必定是物理对象的活动。蒯因承认另一条路是放弃「没有微观物理属性分布的变化就没有变化」这一原则,但他认为自然科学如此成功,必须认真对待其预设,所以那条路「难以接受」。

6. 面对「我们直接体验到内心之流」的反驳,蒯因如何回应?他的回应为何不是简单否认?

Magee 提出最强的直觉反驳:我们清醒时始终体验到复杂的思想、情绪、欲望之流,它不显现于外部行为。蒯因不否认这些体验的存在,而是重新解释它们为物理对象(我们自己)的活动。他进一步论证:「无法从外部观察」并不能把心理事件与物理事件区分开,因为物理学家假定的无生命物体内部微观结构同样无法直接观察,只能靠推测说明。也就是说,不可观察性不等于非物理性。他给出的最终理由仍是保持物理世界体系的封闭性。

7. 蒯因说自己在什么意义上是行为主义者,在什么意义上不是?

蒯因明确区分三个层面。本体论上,他把心理状态等同于神经状态,而非行为。认识论上,他接受行为主义:可观察的行为(包括言语行为)为心理术语提供主体间可验证的判据,使这些术语获得合法性,同时又不必绕道于目前不可行的神经学翻译。解释层面上,他认为完整的解释要到神经学层面去找,行为说明归根结底不是解释。他还强调主体间性是自然科学成功而内省心理学失败的原因,所以仅把心理词语贴到身体上是「太容易」了,还需行为判据。

8. 蒯因为什么接受「类」而拒斥「属性」?这与他对「意义」的怀疑有何关系?

关键在于同一性判据。两个类只要有相同成员就是同一个类,标准清楚。而两个描述何时决定同一个属性,传统回答是「当它们意义相同时」;一旦意义概念本身被质疑,这个判据就随之失效,属性就没有清楚的个体化标准。此外他确信科学中属性可有可无,但并不清楚如何摆脱类,因为数、函数等都可以用集合论改写。所以他的暂定本体论是:物理对象作为个体,加上建立在其上的类的层级。这体现了他「没有同一性就没有实体」的原则。

9. Magee 认为亚原子粒子与数在「不可观察」上有本质区别,蒯因如何用物理学事实反驳?

Magee 的直觉是:粒子只是太小的物质块,若有超级显微眼睛就能看见,而数则彻头彻尾抽象。蒯因指出这一连续性比想象的稀薄得多:基本粒子小于任何波长,原则上无法用光探测;电子两段路径是否属于同一电子存在不确定性;位置不确定性、波粒二象性、玻色-爱因斯坦统计等反常现象表明粒子行为根本不像宏观物体,称它们为「物质」只是宽容的说法。因此「物体」类比只在一定程度上有助于外推,之后就失效了,粒子与数一样都是理论「设定」的实体。

10. 如果有人反驳蒯因:「你消解了自然定律与偶然真理的区别,那科学预测还有什么根据?」他可能如何回应?

蒯因可能这样答:科学预测的根据不在于某种叫「必然性」的特殊性质,而在于整个假说体系的结构。在第 29 段他说理论谓词要通过定律和一般物理理论与观察谓词紧密联系,构成「紧密结合的世界体系」并「促进预测」。定律的价值就是它在体系中的整合与预测作用,无需再附加形而上学的必然性。至于日常「必然地」一词,他解释为语用标记:表示说话者认为对方基于已有承诺不得不承认。所以取消「必然」并不损害科学,只是取消了一个缺乏行为判据的多余概念。

11. 把蒯因「意义无行为判据」的论证放到今天的大语言模型上:如果一个模型对所有词的反应都与人相同,蒯因会说它「理解意义」吗?

按蒯因的逻辑,答案倾向于「这个问题本身没有额外内容」。他在第 24 段问:若两个说话者对同一词反应相同,说「意义仍可能不同」还有什么行为上的意义?他的回答是没有。将此迁移到模型:如果模型的言语行为在所有可观察方面与人无异,再追问「它是否真的把握了意义」,在蒯因看来就像追问无法设想答案的伪问题。但需注意两点限制:第一,他并不把心理状态等同于行为,而是等同于神经/物理状态,所以他可能说模型的内部实现与人不同;第二,他希望有更好的翻译理论取代旧意义理论,这暗示行为判据本身也可能被更精细的理论替代。

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