The Logical Structure of Human Civilization (John Searle) · 苏菲拉底
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The Logical Structure of Human Civilization (John Searle)

节目发布 2022-07-26 · Philosophy Overdose
约翰·塞尔 现现场提问者
EDITED TRANSCRIPT · 依据现场录音编译整理,可划线生成便签
编者按:本文是美国哲学家、加州大学伯克利分校教授约翰·塞尔(John Searle)在印第安纳大学布卢明顿分校所作的一场公开讲演,题为「人类文明的逻辑结构」,是他在该校系列讲座中的第二讲,前一讲谈的是意识如何由大脑产生。讲演之后有现场问答,本文一并收录,听众的提问以叙述方式并入正文。全文依据现场录音编译整理,仅删去口语枝节、寒暄与重复,论证、例证与转折悉数保留。

从质子到总统的鸿沟

我要谈的问题,我认为是当代哲学中最大的问题,在某种意义上也是整个思想生活中最大的问题。这个问题是:我们如何给出一种关于我们自己的说明,使它与我们已经知道的世界本来面目相一致?

关于知识,核心的事实是它在增长。我们今天知道的,远多于一百年前或三百年前。我们对宇宙的基本结构已经有相当清楚的认识:粗略地说,宇宙由处在力场之中的物理粒子构成。「粒子」这个词也许不准确,也许是弦,也许是质能点,这些我留给物理学家去解决,我付钱给他们就是干这个的。可是,如果宇宙就是由这些物理粒子构成的,那么这些粒子既没有心灵,也没有意义。而我们却认为自己的生活充满了意识、理性、智能、语言、伦理、审美、政治,以及其他种种东西。

那么,我们如何把宇宙的基本物理结构,与我们对自己作为有意识、有理性、自由的行动者的理解调和起来?也许我们调和不了,也许我们不得不放弃某些东西,比如自由意志。但无论如何,出发点应该是假定我们对自己的理解大体准确,同时假定我们从自然科学中学到的东西也是准确的,然后问:两者如何调和?而且,光是两者不矛盾还不够。你得说明人类的实在如何是更基本的实在的自然结果。你得说明:一旦有了质子,你就会得到总统;一旦有了电子,你就会得到选举。后者必须是前者的自然结果。

上一次我谈了这个问题的一个方面,就是意识。我认为我们思想史上最大的错误,也是我上次指出的那个:有人竭力否认我们生活在一个世界里,非说我们其实生活在两个世界之中,一个是科学所描述的物理世界,一个是精神世界。我认为这是一个根本性的错误,我要抵制它。我要说,我们只生活在一个世界里。现在我必须向你们展示,那些我们认为是人类文明所独有的东西,如何是这一个世界的一部分,如何是更基本的实在的自然结果。

所以我今天要谈的,用一个花哨的行话来说,叫社会本体论(social ontology),也就是货币、财产、政府、婚姻、大学、所得税减免这类社会现象的存在方式。社会本体论的范围极其广阔。

主观造出的客观事实

哲学家喜欢悖论,我就从一个悖论开始。所有这些人类实在都是由人的意识创造的,由主观的意识创造的,然而它又是客观的事实。我是美国公民,这是客观事实;我钱包里那张纸是一张二十美元的钞票,这也是客观事实。一种由人的主观性创造出来的客观实在,怎么可能存在?

星期二来听过的人已经知道答案了:一个领域在本体论上是主观的,并不妨碍我们对这个领域作出认识论上客观的说明。没错,制度实在必须由人的意识来创造,可是一旦创造出来,我们就可以陈述关于它的客观事实。我是伯克利的教授,是美国公民,欠着一大堆信用卡债,这些都是客观事实,是我们大家都得忍受的那类无聊事。

那么,这到底是怎么运作的?这种实在的存在具有什么性质?我喜欢这样来看我们的历史:就我们所能判断的,达尔文式的自然选择把我们塑造得恰好适合狩猎采集的生活,而且在过去三万年里,我们的基因库显然没有多大变化。可是在这三万年里,人类生活的存在方式却发生了巨大的差异。我想谈的,就是这种差异的结构是什么。

我的狗不用报税

我打算从我们与其他动物的对比开始。一个好的起点,是把我们看成与其他动物连续的。我们对生物学的了解足以让我们看到人与其他动物的共性,尤其是与灵长类的共性。然而,尽管有这么多共性,我们与我所知道的任何其他动物之间,仍然有一整套惊人的差异。我最喜欢举的例子是我的狗。它非常聪明,可是它不操心圣诞假期要怎么过,也不操心今年的所得税怎么办。它就是没有这类烦恼。它是怎么回事?是它不负责任吗?不是。我认为我们身上有一套装置,它给了我们一种狗所没有的能力。

我要引入的第一个概念是制度事实(institutional fact)。我们有创造制度事实的能力,也就是创造那些以人类制度为前提的事实,比如你们是印第安纳大学的学生和教师,比如你们是美国公民。制度事实要与原始事实(brute fact)相对照。原始事实不以任何制度为前提,比如氢原子有一个电子,比如地球距离太阳九千三百万英里。问题在于:你如何从一个由原始事实构成的世界,走到关于货币、公民身份、财产和婚姻的事实?

我曾经觉得这个问题有一个相当简单的答案。我先把这个答案讲给你们听。它不完全对,但已经相当不错,然后我再来改进它。

地位功能的诞生

在我看来,从原始实在走到制度实在,只需要三样东西。

第一,你需要人类和其他许多物种都具备的那种了不起的合作能力。我们用一个术语来描述它:你需要集体意向性(collective intentionality)的能力,也就是与他人合作的能力。好,现在林子里跑着一群野兽,它们能够彼此合作。还需要什么?

第二,人类有一种了不起的能力,有些动物也有,但不是所有动物都有:他们能把功能加于对象之上,拿起一个东西,赋予它一种功能。抱歉要举这些不登大雅之堂的例子,我的口袋里装满了各种各样执行卑微功能的物件,有的用来梳头,有的用来在纸上写字,还有的功能不便描述。但这些全是功能性的物件。请注意一件有趣的事:它们是凭借自己的物理结构来执行功能的。我可以用这支笔写字,可我不能用它梳头。我可以给你们看一样东西,我能用它梳头,可不能用它写字。

到这里都没问题。可是人类凭着自己的机巧,发明了一个伟大的主意,它是文明真正的起源。这个主意是:你可以把功能指派给对象和人,而这个功能的执行,不是凭借(或者说不单是凭借)它们的物理结构,而是凭借这样一个事实:我们给这个人或这个对象指派了一种地位,随地位而来一种功能,而这个功能之所以能够执行,仅仅是因为共同体(至少是共同体中相当多的成员)集体接受了这种地位。这就是我要引入的第一个基本概念:地位功能(status function)。

所有的功能都是相对于观察者的:一样东西之所以有功能,只是因为我们给它指派了功能。但地位功能很特别,因为它不是凭物理结构来执行功能,而是凭什么呢?我们先可以说,凭人们接受它具有某种地位这一事实。我再掏一样更不登大雅之堂的东西给你们看:这是一张五美元的钞票,它也执行一种功能,可是与我刚才给你们看的那些东西不同,它不是凭物理结构执行功能的。它执行功能,是凭我们接受它、承认它、同意它。是我们的态度让它执行五美元钞票的功能,而不是它的物理结构。

于是我们要问:这是怎么做到的?这是一个惊人的现象。

X在C中算作Y

很长时间以来,我认为理解这件事的关键在于,存在一类特殊的规则,我称之为构成性规则(constitutive rule),以区别于调节性规则(regulative rule)。调节性规则调节的是先前已经存在的、独立存在的行为形式。「靠右行驶」就是一条调节性规则。但不是所有规则都是这样的。有些规则构成了它们所调节的行为本身,因为做出这种行为,就在于按照这些规则来行动,至少是按照其中足够大的一部分来行动。

哲学家最爱举的例子永远是国际象棋。事情并不是这样的:一大群人在棋盘上推着木头块,某位天才站出来说,伙计们,我们得定几条规则,你们的马老是撞我的象。不是这样。下棋本身就在于按照这些规则行动。而且这些规则通常成体系:国际象棋的规则、橄榄球的规则,或者一个有力得多的例子,美国宪法,都是一套构成性规则。

这些构成性规则长什么样?它们有一种奇特的结构:某样东西算作另一样东西,而它本身可以说并不内在地就是那样东西。X在语境C中算作Y。拿国际象棋来说:某某走法算作合法的马步,某某局面算作你被将军,某某形式的将军算作你被将死。在选举人团中获得多数票,算作当选总统;由最高法院首席大法官主持宣誓,算作就任美国总统。你就这样把一层层结构搭建起来,一样东西算作另一样东西。我当时觉得,我们就是这样做的:通过反复运用构成性规则,我们建起了文明。

向上迭代与相互嵌套

你也许会想,这套装置也太可怜了,靠它可建不起文明,它看上去太脆弱。可它有两个了不起的形式特性。

第一个特性是,它可以无限地向上迭代。看着:我用嘴发出一些声音,这些声音算作英语句子;说出其中某些句子,算作作出承诺;某些承诺,算作订立一项法律契约。注意这里发生的事:我们有X1算作Y1,但Y1同时就是X2,它又算作Y2,就这样一直往上走。以婚姻为例,以契约为例:发出声音算作作出承诺,作出承诺算作订立某种契约,某种契约算作结婚。在加利福尼亚州,你一结婚,从制度的角度看,天翻地覆的事情就来了。你有资格享受配偶福利,享受产假,就算你是男的也能休产假,我不知道他们依据的是什么理论。总之,你一旦获得这种制度地位,所有这些事情就都跟着来了。你有了已婚的地位,这是一个制度事实,它给了你一组地位功能,你有了某些权利、义务和责任。

这套「X在C中算作Y」的装置还有第二个了不起的特性:它与其他地位功能相互嵌套。我不只是有钱,我的钱在加州伯克利电报大道上的美国银行的账户里,是我的雇主,也就是加州大学董事会,把它放进去的,我用它来缴纳州和联邦所得税、还信用卡债,以及一大堆别的事。请注意,我刚才用到的几乎每一个名词,除了「电报大道」可能是例外,都指的是一种地位功能,都指的是某种制度性的东西:美国银行、我的雇主、加州大学。一个制度只有嵌进一大堆别的制度里才能运转。

这看上去是一个不错的理论开端:我们可以说,地位功能是运用构成性规则的结果,而构成性规则比表面看上去更有力,因为它们可以无限地往上走,你可以不断创造新的制度事实,而这些事实又彼此嵌套。漂亮的理论。可是哲学家会给你一些反例。我要告诉你们它错在哪里,然后改进它。

无形之钱与凭空的公司

这里有几个有趣的难题,有些是我自己想到的,有些是我那些友好的哲学同行想到的,它们叫反例。

第一个难题是我自己想到的:创造一个制度事实,往往不需要一条规则。一群孩子可以就这么决定,某个人当垒球队的队长。他们不需要一部宪法来援引,他们就那么干了,就那么把这家伙算作队长。

更麻烦的是下面这一点:有时候你甚至不需要X项。你可以凭空创造出一个制度事实。我最喜欢的例子一直是钱。我喜欢掏出一张二十美元的钞票来炫耀,可事实是,大多数钱根本没有物理存在。在我的银行账户里,并没有一个X算作一张二十美元的钞票。你们知道,我很天真,我觉得既然我把钱交给了这些人,而且这是我的账户,那银行里就该有一个写着我名字的抽屉,把我的钱放在里面,我想去银行看看我的钱。可事情不是这样运作的,这很让人不安:你的钱根本没有物理存在。在银行的肚子里,某些计算机磁盘上有一些磁性痕迹,可那些磁性痕迹上并没有粘着钱。它们是钱的表征(representation)。

这里有一个了不起的事实:钱毕竟是非常有力的东西,可是在钱的情形里,你根本不需要任何实际的对象来承载地位功能,光有表征就够了。我们可以仅仅通过交换表征来买卖,这正是我们用借记卡在走向的方向。用借记卡,你手里没有任何现金、任何货币来支撑这笔交易,你只是交换数值:你账户里的一个数值,换成别人账户里的一个数值。这对哲学家来说是令人震惊的。我上次说过,要当哲学家,你得允许自己对任何神志正常的人都视为理所当然的事感到震惊。我就对钱的这个事实感到震惊:这里根本没有实际的货币。

还有一个更令人震惊的事实:人类凭着自己的机巧,发明了整套根本不需要任何物理实在的制度。最著名的例子就是有限责任公司。我有一位了不起的研究助理,叫谷歌。我在谷歌上查加州关于设立公司的法律,它说的就是:你通过宣布你要设立一家公司,来设立一家公司。就这么简单,你要做的就是提交公司章程。这些情形里到底发生了什么?一种强有力的制度,公司,怎么可能根本没有物理存在?公司也许有一栋大楼当办公室,可那不是公司,那只是大楼。公司本身纯粹是抽象的。

那么,到底发生了什么?

语言的四种适应指向

现在我进入讲演的第二部分。我要把刚才给你们讲的那套说明,纳入一个宽广得多的说明之中。为此,我得先讲一点语言是怎么运作的。因为我的核心信息将会是:人类文明是由一种非常特定的言语行为、一种非常特定的语言行为创造出来的。我们并没有聪明到每次都能做出新鲜的、原创的事,我们只是把同一件事一遍又一遍地运用。这是我整个讨论的底线,但我得一步步走到那里。

人类还有一个了不起的特性:语言。我们熟悉这样一个观念:动物之间有信号系统,其中有些丰富到足以称为语言。我认为蜜蜂的语言大概够格。蜜蜂当然不会做证明题,但它显然是一种以复杂方式表征信息的信号系统。我喜欢它的一点是,它显然不只是刺激和反应。我最喜欢的一个实验是这样的:研究者把一船花运到湖中央,一只蜜蜂飞到湖中央,找到了这船花,回到蜂巢,告诉她的姐妹们(蜂群社会里全是雌性),湖中央有好多花。她们毫无兴趣。她们就是不相信湖中央能找到那么多花。我觉得这很有人性,我喜欢。

我不知道蜜蜂的语言能派什么用场,但我知道人类语言能做哪些别的语言做不到的事,我要讲讲这是怎么运作的。人类的言语行为通常有这样的结构:一种力,奥斯汀(J. L. Austin)称之为以言行事之力(illocutionary force),加上一个命题内容。我可以预测你会离开房间,可以命令你离开房间,可以问你是否会离开房间。在每一种情形里,命题相同,但言语行为的种类不同,也就是通常所说的以言行事行为不同。

看到这里,你会想知道这样的东西有多少种。区分它们的一种办法,是区分它们与实在发生关系的方式。哲学家的最爱是陈述:陈述应当是真的或假的,如果上面的陈述与下面的实在相符,它就是真的。用一个简单的比喻,可以把这想成一种「适应」(fit):词语应当去适应世界。这是词语到世界的适应指向(word-to-world direction of fit)。一个言语行为是否具有这种适应指向,最简单的标志是:你能不能按字面意义说它是真的或假的。陈述可以。

但当然,不是所有言语行为都是这样。有时候你给某人下命令,或者作出承诺,这时要改变的是实在:如果是承诺,你自己要去改变实在;如果是命令,接受命令的人要去改变实在,让它与言语行为的内容相符,也就是让世界去适应词语。所以这一类具有世界到词语的适应指向(world-to-word direction of fit):世界应当变化,来与词语相符。你不说这些是真的或假的,命令是被服从或被违抗,承诺是被遵守或被打破。

所以语言与实在发生关系有两种基本方式:你表征事物是怎样的,这是词语到世界、有真假之分的指向;或者你试图改变实在,让它与表征中的样子相符,这是命令和承诺。此外还有一些情形,适应是被预设为理所当然的。当我为踩了你的脚道歉时,我既不是想让你的脚被踩,也不是在宣称我踩了你的脚,我只是在表达歉意。在这里,适应是被视为当然的。

与此相应,我们有不同类别的言语行为。有断言类(assertives),其目标是告诉我们实在中事物是怎样的,包括陈述和描述,哲学家的所有最爱都在这一类里。有指令类(directives),包括命令和指示,也包括建议和要求,它们具有世界到词语的指向。还有一类是你使自己承诺去做某事,我称之为承诺类(commissives),哲学家的最爱是许诺:许诺、发誓、威胁、保证,由此创造出做某事的理由。我讲得很快,但我希望你们抓住基本想法:语言有不同的方式与实在发生关系,两种主要方式,一种是试图说出世界是怎样的,另一种又分为两类,以听者为基础的指令类和以说者为基础的承诺类。指令是你试图让别人做某事,承诺是你使自己承担做某事的责任。

然后有一个古怪的类别,表达类(expressives),比如道歉、感谢、祝贺,其目标不是去适应实在,而是表达一种态度。

说出即造就的宣告

但现在,令人惊异的东西来了。有一组令人惊异的言语行为,我称之为宣告(declarations)。在这些情形里,你仅仅通过说某事是这样,就使它成为这样。主席可以通过说「散会」来结束会议。你可以仅仅通过说「你被解雇了」来解雇一名雇员,可以通过说「你被录用了」来录用一个人,如果你有正当的授权,你可以通过说「我宣布你们结为夫妻」来使一对新人成为夫妻。

这些情形里发生了什么?我要说得非常简单:在这些情形里,你得到了双重的适应指向。当你说「散会」时,你得到了世界到词语的适应指向,因为世界变了,会议现在散了。可它之所以散了,是因为你把它表征为已经散了。也就是说,你通过词语到世界的适应指向,实现了世界到词语的适应指向。你做的不是两个言语行为,你并不是先陈述了会议散了,再命令它散会,你做的是一个言语行为,它同时包含了两者。这是一个惊人的事实。

这些是怎么运作的?最好的例子是奥斯汀的施行句(performatives):你通过说「我命令你离开房间」来下达命令,通过说「我承诺来看你」来作出承诺,通过说「散会」来结束会议,通过说「我把我的手表赠予我的侄子」来遗赠手表。所有这些情形里都有一个动词或动词短语,比如承诺、命令、散会。可是你并不总是需要一种特殊的句子来做这件事。你可以用任何句子来做,只要它被以正确的方式理解。

我最喜欢的例子又在我的钱包里,这又是一个对显而易见的事感到震惊的例子。这张纸上写着一些惊人的哲学论断。它说:本票据为偿付一切公私债务之法定货币(This note is legal tender for all debts public and private)。我们都是认识论者,我们的自然倾向是问:他们凭什么知道?做过研究吗?做过调查吗?他们傲慢地说这是偿付一切公私债务的法定货币,证据是什么?答案当然是,他们不是发现它是法定货币,他们是通过宣告它是法定货币而使它成为法定货币。这是一个宣告。「本票据为法定货币」看上去像一句普通的事实陈述,其实不是。并不是他们做了严肃的调查,然后发现,没错,它真的是法定货币。不是。他们通过宣告使它成为法定货币。

这是一个了不起的事实:人类有能力仅仅通过宣告一种实在存在,就创造出这种实在。再说一遍,施行句是最好的例子,但不一定非得是施行句,不一定非得用一个特殊的动词,像「我在此宣布散会」或「我在此命令你离开房间」。你可以就只是作一个陈述,如果它被普遍接受为创造了它所描述的实在,你就成功地完成了一个宣告。

全部制度皆由宣告创造

现在我要提出整场讲演中最强的主张。它是这样的:全部人类制度实在,货币、财产、政府、婚姻、大学、鸡尾酒会、暑假,以及其他一切,都是由(我必须措辞谨慎)具有宣告这种言语行为的逻辑形式的表征所创造的。它不必是明确的。你不必公开地说「你是老板」或「我们在此任命你为老板」,那是明确的宣告。你可以仅仅通过把某人当作老板来对待,仅仅通过一贯把她称作老板,通过把她表征为老板,就使她成为老板。

所以在所有这些现象里发生的事是:你通过把某个制度事实表征为存在,来创造这个制度事实,而这具有宣告的逻辑形式。简明的说法是:全部人类制度实在,人类社会区别于其他动物社会的一切特有之处,都是通过反复运用同一类言语行为,宣告,创造出来的。

为了给它们起个名字,我要把这一点与我前面讲的联系起来:我们有能力通过集体意向性来指派功能,其中一些功能是地位功能。我现在提出的论题是:所有地位功能都是由宣告创造的,都是由同一类言语行为创造的。我必须加以限定:是由具有宣告的逻辑形式的表征创造的,因为你不必明确地做这件事,你可以仅仅通过接受某事或承认某事来做。但必须有一个表征,它使你能够创造这个制度事实。

如果到目前为止我是对的,这就是人类文明的独特之处,那么我们会得到一组有趣的等式:地位功能,也就是凭借对某种地位的集体接受而执行的功能,与制度事实是外延相同的;而制度事实的创造,正是为了创造这些地位功能。

制度的目的是道义权力

那么,意义何在?我们为什么创造这么多地位功能?我们为什么任命某人当系主任,宣布某人结为夫妻,让某人当美国总统,创造货币、私有财产、政府和婚姻?答案是:所有这些都是地位功能。没错,可是功能是什么?功能的意义何在?答案是:我们这样做是为了权力。

所有这些都在创造权力结构。全部制度实在都是在创造权力结构。如果你有一张五美元的钞票,你就有了一种没有这张钞票时所没有的权力。如果你是哲学系主任,你就有了不当系主任时所没有的权力。许多权力是负面的权力。作为伯克利的教授,我有一种正面的权力,我可以领一张停车许可证,它不给我一个车位,但至少我有了许可,有了去找车位的权利。可我也有负面的权力:我有义务在某天某日出现在课堂上给学生上课。

所以,地位功能就是制度事实,制度事实无一例外地创造权力,但这些权力属于一种非常特别的类型,我称之为道义权力(deontic powers)。之所以这样叫,是因为这类权力的名称包括权利、义务、责任、授权、许可、要求,以及这一家族中的其他成员。

这又是关于人类的一个了不起的事实。据我所知,一群狗不会在狗群内部创造一套义务、权利和责任的系统。它们也许会造出一个等级,有一只雄性头领和一只雌性头领,可它们不会创造带着制度事实和地位功能的道义权力。

地位功能之所以是件大事,是因为它们全都由这种构成性的操作创造,全都由地位功能宣告(status function declaration)创造。我用「地位功能宣告」这个词,是因为创造地位功能的那些言语行为具有宣告的逻辑形式。它们在创造制度实在的同时,创造了一套道义权力的系统。

与欲望无关的行动理由

道义权力在这一点上非常了不起:它们与人类理性咬合在一起,其咬合方式使它们给了你独立于你的倾向的行动理由。如果你承认一项义务是有约束力的义务,你就承认你有一个独立于欲望的理由去履行这项义务。

我给你们举一个真实的例子。一位好人邀请我来印第安纳州布卢明顿做几场讲演。几个月前,这听上去是个好主意。可是有一天你得早起,赶到旧金山机场,然后,你们知道那是什么滋味:你得排队,得脱鞋,得吃飞机餐,现在连飞机餐都没多少了,最糟的是,你得把胳膊肘往另一个家伙也想放胳膊肘的地方挤。没有人是为了好玩而干这些的。可另一方面,毫无疑问,我作出了承诺,我创造了一个制度事实,也就是我的承诺,而这个制度事实创造了一个独立于我的倾向的行动理由。我有理由来,所以我来了。

我曾在芝加哥的一个著名研讨班上举过这个例子,那个研讨班里坐着一位(说得客气些)非常保守的经济学家。他们不相信任何人会出于独立于欲望的理由做任何事。他们说,你来芝加哥,不过是因为你担心你不来我们会怎么看你。我不忍心告诉他们,我根本不在乎你们这帮人怎么想。我没忍心说。总之我到了那儿,又活着离开了。

所以我要提出的论题是:我们生活在地位功能的海洋之中。奇妙的是,它们几乎完全隐形,因为你把它们视为当然。我身上的衣服是我的私有财产,我是美国公民,持有有效的加州驾照,我几张信用卡上有若干额度,这个清单长得很。

我描述的这类地位功能,有许多是成文法典化的。给这些东西立法很容易,而且法律天然倾向于繁殖。为什么?因为地位功能只有被表征为存在才存在,而一旦有了表征,把表征法典化就相对容易了。可也有些地位功能没有法典化,一旦法典化反而会受损。我想到的是鸡尾酒会、恋爱和友谊。这些全是地位功能。检验标准是:邀请人来参加鸡尾酒会,或者有一个朋友,是否附带一组义务和其他道义权力?友谊有没有义务?恋爱有没有义务?在我看来,每一种情形的答案都是有。可你不会想去把它法典化,一部分原因是,你是在边走边发明它,你在发明这个制度事实的结构,无论是一段友谊还是一段恋情,而它一旦法典化,一旦变得正式,就失去了弹性。当你去到别的国家,那里对恋爱、对友谊也许有不同的理解,你会遇到麻烦,会惹上不少事。不同理解的细节我就不展开了。

语言是一切制度的根基

从这番讨论中还能得出另一个结论,它与我早年的看法不同:语言不只是众多地位功能系统当中的一个,它是最基本的人类制度。这话的意思是:我提到的所有其他人类制度,政府、私有财产、大学,全都以语言为前提。一个社会可以有语言而没有货币、私有财产或政府,反过来却不行。如果一位人类学家从亚马逊河流域回来,说她研究的部落有语言,但没有私有财产,没有政府,这说得通。可如果她回来说,他们有私有财产、政府、婚姻和货币,但没有语言,我们知道这不可能对,因为语言是根本的人类制度,其他一切制度都以它为前提。

但这里有一个有趣的不对称。我最初想到「X算作Y」这条构成性规则,是为了描述语言的运作,描述言语行为的施行:用英语说出「雪是白的」这个句子,算作作出「雪是白的」这个陈述。可现在发现,构成性规则在语言中的运作,与它在所谓非语言的制度事实(比如货币和私有财产)中的运作,有一个巨大的不对称。

不对称在这里:对于非语言的地位功能和道义权力,比如我们让某人当美国总统,我们是在用语言创造超出语言权力的权力。我们用语言说:以授予我的权力,我在此宣布你为美国总统。这家伙随后拥有的权力,超出了语言的权力。可当我们只是用一个句子作一个陈述时,没有任何权力超出语言的权力。作为一个说英语的人,我对英语的知识使我有权力通过说出「雪是白的」这个句子,来作出「雪是白的」这个陈述。在这里,语义就是全部的权力,权力只是语义权力。

可是当你任命某人当哲学系主任,录取某人进研究生院,给某人颁奖,宣布某人结为夫妻,向银行借钱,或者在布卢明顿买一栋房子,所有这些情形里,你都在创造制度事实,从而创造道义权力,你是用语言来做这件事的,可你创造出来的权力超出了语义权力。奥巴马的全部权力都源自语义:他必须被造就为总统,被当作总统对待,被表征为总统,可他的权力超出了语义。指挥美国军队作战的权力远远超出语义,尽管这权力最初的来源建立在语义之上。语义创造出了非语义的权力。

所以,语言不仅是根本的人类社会制度,是其他一切制度所由以派生、所依赖的制度,它的运作方式还与其他制度有根本的不同:就句子的意义而言,你懂一门语言时所拥有的,只是用这些句子施行言语行为的权力。可当你被锁进一个由制度事实、地位功能和道义权力组成的系统之中,当你在股市上买卖股票,在国会里通过立法,或者作为法官裁决案件时,所有这些情形都涉及语言的使用,但它们是用语言来创造超出语言的权力。

社会契约论的语言盲点

在把讨论交给大家之前,我还想说几件理论性的事。

第一,在我看来,如果你沿着我建议的思路想,你会对社会科学和政治哲学中的许多传统问题得到一种不同的理解。看看我们政治和社会理论的传统,有一个可以追溯到希腊人的通病:粗略地说,他们的语言理论太贫乏。他们把语言视为当然。社会契约论者是最糟的,因为他们假定我们在林子里跑来跑去,说着一种语言,然后某位天才说,我们来订一个社会契约吧,于是大家聚在一起,有了社会。可我要说的意思是:如果你有了语言,你就已经有了一份隐含的社会契约,因为你已经有了创造地位功能的可能。

那我们是怎么得逞的?令人惊异的是,我们竟然得逞了。简短的回答是:如果人们接受它,你就得逞了。通过宣告来创造地位功能,最令人惊异的例子出自一群写起东西来就像读过我的书的人。他们用的正是我这套术语,他们把它叫作《独立宣言》(Declaration of Independence)。请注意,在那一刻之前,他们的地位功能里没有任何东西赋予他们做这件事的权力。别忘了,这些人是英国臣民,他们不是任何国家的公民,他们是乔治三世的臣民,身处英国王室殖民地。费城是王室殖民地,这本身就是一种地位功能,完全处在伦敦王室的统治之下。他们就这么聚在一起,做了一个集体的言语行为,他们说:我们宣布自己是一个独立的国家。

他们得逞了。怎么得逞的?简短的回答是,他们让人们接受了它,我们今天在这里,是因为人们接受了它,我们也接受它。详细的回答是,他们不得不打一场仗来赢得这种接受,直到康沃利斯在约克镇战败,他们才算彻底自由了。顺便说一句,有件事美国人往往忘了:没有法国人的帮助,我们打不赢那场仗。法国人在我们国家的创建中是不可或缺的。所以,当法国人抱怨我们、我们抱怨法国人的时候(这是我们国内常见的谈资),请记住这一点。

这群人创造出了一种力量巨大的制度实在。可这一招并不总是奏效。我想是里士满的一群人试图玩同样的把戏,他们有个不错的样板,他们创立了美利坚联盟国,可没成功。同样,靠一场战争才把问题解决,但问题确实解决了。

了不起的是,你的整个生活都被结构在一系列复杂的地位功能家族之中,而它们全都是由同一个简单的逻辑语言操作反复运用创造出来的:地位功能宣告。我们并没有聪明到每次都能做出新鲜的、原创的事。我们有这个创造地位功能的装置,地位功能宣告,我们一遍又一遍地运用它。

人权与词汇之争

我说过,如果采取我这番话里隐含的进路,许多传统问题会变得清楚。让我用一个想法来结束。在这个国家和国际上,关于人权、关于普遍人权,有大量的争论。问题是:人权的本体论是什么?有一类哲学家对此非常怀疑,比如边沁(Jeremy Bentham)和麦金太尔(Alasdair MacIntyre),他们认为谈论人权是胡说,你们到底在说什么?

可我认为,一旦你认清实际发生的事,这种谈论是可以被证明为正当的。你拥有人权,不像你拥有拇指那样。人权是一种地位功能。人权与其他权利的区别在于,其他权利通常在一个先已存在的制度之内产生:作为公民我有某些权利,作为丈夫我有某些权利,作为教授我有某些权利。可是在十八世纪,我不知道具体是谁,也许是十七世纪,总之是在启蒙时代,某个人或某群人想出了一个天才的主意:仅仅作为一个人,就是一种Y地位功能。他们没有合适的术语来表达这一点,但这正是他们想说的。仅仅作为一个人,就是一种Y地位功能,而这种地位功能本身就带有道义权力,带有普遍的人权。我认为这在思想上是可以被证明为正当的:你承认人权是普遍的地位功能,由某一类言语行为创造和维持,而这类言语行为就是地位功能宣告。

还有一个主张我没来得及展开:制度事实不仅在最初由地位功能宣告创造,它们在时间中的维持也是靠同一种方式。你维持一个掌权的系统,是靠不断把它表征为它所是的那种权力结构。看清这一点的一个办法,是看革命运动为什么要改变词汇。俄国革命时,革命者非常急于让人们不再使用传统俄国的称呼方式,他们要每个人都被称作「同志」。为什么?因为这标志着一种地位功能上的平等,而称某人为老爷或公爵是不会承认这种平等的。所以他们坚持要改变词汇。更近一些,在女权运动早期,女权主义者急于让我们不再使用「女士们、先生们」这套传统词汇,因为它标志着她们急于克服的那些地位功能。

我不知道这些事情会如何发展,这很有意思。今天在莫斯科,如果你称某人为「同志」,我想那会是个笑话,因为当年创造出来的那个系统已经被掏空了。可就在我们说话的此刻,这种事仍在发生。看看美国的老法律,「老处女」(spinster)这个词很常见。我有一次问我的班上,你们当中有多少人是老处女,请举手。一位中年女士有勇气举起了手。我当场就想给她一个A。因为这是一个正在过时的词,它曾经标志着一种地位功能。我想「单身汉」(bachelor)也许也在过时,随着(我略带犹豫地称之为)婚姻实践的变化,随着两性关系的变化,我们也许会走向各种各样的新词汇。而词汇至关重要,因为词汇正是地位功能指派的表述形式。

所以我想,我只是刚刚开始了一个题目。但我想提出的是,也是我要用来收尾的:当我用「人类文明的逻辑结构」这个有点挑衅意味的标题时,不幸的是,多数人以为我说的「逻辑」是相对于「不合逻辑」而言的。不是这个意思。要点在于,它具有一种命题结构。这种命题结构,就是按照宣告这种言语行为来指派地位功能,宣告通过把某事表征为如此而使它成为如此。凡是有命题结构的地方,就有逻辑关系。这就是我把它叫作「人类文明的逻辑结构」的原因。

我认为,这就是我们与其他社会性动物的不同之处。社会性动物有很多,其中许多有权力结构和等级,有雄性头领和雌性头领,可它们没有我们这种极其丰富、稳定的地位功能系统。我去莱比锡拜访过迈克·托马塞洛(Michael Tomasello)的灵长类实验室,他那里的灵长类动物每天都忙着打架,争今天谁当头领,而头领还得在其他雄性当中找盟友,去抵挡别的想当头领的雄性。白宫可不是这么运作的。奥巴马不会起床就想,今天我得把所有人都掰手腕掰赢了。不会。他有一套被接受的地位功能系统,它在时间中持续存在。好的制度和坏的制度都有这个特征。但我确信,这是理解人类文明本体论的关键。

问答:问句也是指令

讲演之后,第一位提问的听众问到疑问句的性质。我今天没有专门讲言语行为的分类,但问句是指令类的一个种类。每一个问句都是一个请求,请求一个答案。英语的问句还有一件了不起的事:问句的形式决定答句的形式。如果我问「你们有香蕉吗」,你回答「有」,这个「有」并不是说明天会下雨,而是说我们有香蕉。唯一的例外是英语里那些古怪的情态助动词。如果我问「我该不该娶一个共和党人」,正确的回答不是「是的,你该」或者「不,你不该」,而是「娶吧」或者「别娶」。它请求的是建议。情态助动词很难琢磨。但总之,问句是指令。

那位听众接着说,他想到的是从满足好奇心到质疑权威的整个范围,比如「你以为你是谁」「你以为你在干什么」。我得抵制在这里长篇大论谈问句的诱惑,问句是一个迷人的题目。其中一个有趣的类别是修辞问句。当共和党全国大会上那个家伙说「我们还想再要四年无能的政府吗」,他并不想让人们琢磨:哦,我不知道,我们想不想呢,我猜想吧。不是。修辞问句的有趣之处在于,它通过假定问题的答案是已知的,来作出一个陈述。答案一旦已知,你就可以用修辞问句来陈述。问句很迷人,有很多可说。但简短的回答是:一个真正诚实的问句,比如「我怎么去布卢明顿」,就是一个直接的指令,你在请求信息。

问答:地位功能指示器

接下来一位听众说他同意我讲的大部分,然后要提醒我注意一件事。(每当有人这么说,你就得当心了,因为他接下来要讲的是他不同意的地方。)他说:你有一张加州驾照。假如我去加州访问,没带驾照,你不能说,罗伊,没关系,拿我的用吧。可另一方面,我有一张明天的午餐券,我可以把它给别人,那个人可以代替我吃午饭。所以要紧的是,驾照是你独有的,警察拦下你的时候,他要确认你是约翰而不是别人;而午餐的事,谁吃并不重要,他们只要保证餐券的数目等于付了钱的人数。这些权力凭证有一些重要的性质。

他说得完全对,我感谢这个补充,我还想多说几句。许多地位功能附着于特定的、有名有姓的个人。驾照上写着你的名字,结婚证上也是。你不能靠借我的结婚证来证明你结了婚。它是特定的。钱的美妙之处在于它是可替代的,任何人拿着钱都可以买东西,可其他许多东西不是这样可以交换的。

这里还有一个我没来得及讲的话题,我想借这个机会提一下:我们常常需要指示器,需要地位功能指示器(status function indicator)。警察穿制服;我那张真实的驾照本身不是地位功能,它是我能开车这种地位的指示器。结婚戒指、制服、驾照,这些都是地位功能指示器,它们的首要功能是认识论上的:它们证明我拥有我声称拥有的地位。它们还可以获得某种独立的生命。加州的驾照被用于各种与开车毫无关系的事:没有驾照你买不了啤酒,因为你证明不了自己满二十一岁。地位指示器有时候会获得一种独立的生命。但基本的想法是,对许多地位功能来说,你需要用某种认识论上的装置来表明你拥有这种地位功能。

我刚到伯克利的时候,你能看出谁是教授:打领带的那些人,领带加西装外套。到了六十年代,你也能看出谁是教授:穿着鞋的那些人,因为那时穿衣习惯已经变了。我的母校牛津有一个麻烦:我在那儿当学生的时候,你可以通过衣着辨认谁是大学成员。他们穿的大致就是我身上这类东西,精纺法兰绒长裤,通常配花呢外套,我这身还够不上。总之,不三不四的人闯进大学是不成问题的,凭穿着就能立刻认出来。现在大家都穿牛仔裤,学美国人,这招不管用了。于是人们开始锁门。在牛津你现在得锁门,以前不用,因为以前全是上等阶级的成员,凭穿着一眼就能认出来。

问答:从质子到总统

一位听众指出,我在开头讲了质子和电子这类物理粒子,可对于如何从质子和电子走到人类、走到文明,我一个字也没说。让我回答这个问题。可惜我在这里只有两场讲演,其中一场讲的是意识。先给一个简短的回答。

我不确定那些是不是粒子,也许是质能点或者弦,但这不归我管,那是我付钱让物理学家去解决的,即基本实体的本体论。这些东西组织成系统。在我们这个小小的地球上,其中一些粒子组织成了含有大量碳的大分子,加上氢、氮和氧,而这些碳基分子系统当中,有一些活了起来。直到今天我们仍不知道这件事是何时、如何、在哪里发生的,但它确实发生了,这是一个惊人的事实。这些活的有机系统当中,有一些继续演化,我们现在说的是几百万年的尺度,一直演化到成为动物,而某些动物演化出了意识。我上次讲的就是大脑如何产生意识。我们仍然不理解这一点,不知道大脑究竟如何产生意识,也不知道意识在大脑中究竟如何运作,但我们知道它确实如此。

今天这场讲演是下一步:一旦有了意识,你就可以得到语言。我没有讨论语言的结构,只讲了它的某些用途。而一旦有了语言,你就有了创造人类社会和人类文明的可能。所以这个模式是:从物理粒子这种基本的物理实在,到碳基分子中生命的开端,然后是生命通过演化的发展,然后是演化机制通过动物和有意识的动物的发展,然后是语言的发展,然后是我们,然后是我们拥有的这一切。这就是从质子到总统的路:从物理粒子的基本系统出发,其中一些活了起来(一个惊人的事实),其中一些活的系统在漫长的演化时间里演化,经过那段漫长的时间,最终到达像我们这样的家伙。我应该把这一点讲透,但路径就是这样。

不过我们不该对自己的特殊处境感到自负。我前面提到过,我们处在一个大星系里的一个很小的太阳系中,我们的星系里有一千亿颗恒星,我不知道其中有多少能像我们的太阳那样支持生命或行星,可我们这个有一千亿颗恒星的星系,只是一千亿个星系当中的一个。所以在我看来,我们不太可能是宇宙中唯一有意识的生物。我也不认为宇宙中的其他生物长得像我们,凭什么要像?我们是某种演化的怪胎,如果他们能看见我们(他们不一定有视觉,但假如能看见),我们在他们眼里大概和他们在我们眼里一样怪。所以我们不能假定自己是生命出现的唯一合理方式。但这是我们所得到的,我们只能靠它活着。

这是好消息:我们星系里只有一千亿颗恒星,宇宙中只有一千亿个星系。这话我给学生讲了很多年。坏消息是我最近才从我那些物理学界的朋友那里得知的:我刚才讲的故事只涵盖宇宙的百分之四。那其他百分之九十六呢?我付了钱是要听这个的。其他百分之九十六是暗物质和暗能量,而它们之所以「暗」,是认识论上的暗:那些该死的物理学家还没搞明白。他们有相当好的理由相信这些东西存在。他们有一句话总让我抓狂:宇宙在膨胀。往什么里面膨胀?如果我说我们决定扩建厨房,那它得扩到后院去。可如果说,顺便提一句,我们要扩建厨房,还要扩展宇宙,我往哪里扩展宇宙?这问题是有答案的,但他们一直在误导我们。答案是,说宇宙在膨胀,就是说星系之间的距离在拉大,而它们确实在拉大。推动它们分开的力是什么?那就是暗能量,还有暗物质。

所以,关于我们自身的本性和宇宙的本性,一些最根本的事实我们真的非常无知。我们对宇宙如何运作知道得不多,更糟的是,我们对自己如何运作也知道得不多。我们不知道大脑如何产生意识,不知道生命如何开始。我们确实知道它开始了,也演化了,我们对那些机制有某种理解,可在大片领域里我们仍然无知。这正是哲学有趣的地方:我们有很多事可做。

问答:社会崩溃与好坏制度

一位听众说,我谈到了施行句对社会权力乃至社会变革的一些含义,贾雷德·戴蒙德(Jared Diamond)那本《崩溃》的副标题是「社会如何选择成败」,他问我能否给点提示,我们如何避免灾难性的崩溃,有没有什么施行性的咒语能帮上忙。

我就喜欢这种容易的问题。我没有一套关于社会或社会崩溃的一般理论,所以问我这个问题是找错了人。如果我对社会本体论,也就是社会的存在方式,能给出一个好的刻画,我可以从那里往下走,但我还没有往下走。往下走的问题会是:什么使一个制度成为好制度或坏制度?在那里,我想你得问:什么构成人的繁盛(human flourishing),什么样的健康社会有助于人的繁盛。在我看来,今天世界上有许多社会不太健康。美国人喜欢自我批评,可我认为,比起叙利亚正在发生的事,我们过得相当不错。我相信叙利亚也有很多乐趣可享,可眼下我宁愿待在印第安纳。世界上很多别的地方也是如此。所以我回答不了你的问题,但我希望我提供的是一个提出这些问题的本体论框架。

问答:什么是制度

下一位听众说,他这个问题有点棘手,已经困扰他一阵子了:制度到底是什么?社会到底是什么?他说制度更要紧,因为我一直在用这个词。

我说过,制度是一个构成性规则的系统。在这些构成性规则的系统之内,你创造制度事实,而所有制度事实都由同一类言语行为,或者说同一类语言表征创造,即地位功能宣告。对这个说法马上会有反驳,因为有些我们视为制度的东西,按我的说法并不是制度事实。基督教历法就不是一种制度,因为「今天是某月某日」不带任何道义性。检验标准是:它带不带道义性(deontology)?圣诞节是一个制度事实,因为在圣诞节这一天我有义务和权利:我有义务给孩子送礼物,也有权利休一天假。这标志着它是一个制度事实,是一种地位功能。所以地位功能是有检验标准的:它带不带道义性。

简短的回答是:制度是构成性规则的系统,它们使得通过地位功能宣告来创造制度事实成为可能;地位功能宣告无一例外地创造道义权力;而道义权力是把人类文明粘合在一起的胶水,因为它们给了我们独立于当下倾向的行动理由。这就是今天这场讲演的总结。

另一位听众接着追问冲突的问题。他说,我在快结束时谈到,宣告必须被大规模接受才能产生效力。可这样一来,这种命题的、逻辑的结构似乎没有多少规范性的力量。从这个逻辑结构里能证明出来的东西大多是描述性的:我看着我的一组公理,而它们是已经打完仗的结果,然后我从那里推出事实。前一位提问者问的是能否通过把社会描述为一个宣告的迭代过程来避免崩溃,他的问题更根本:这套东西到底有没有任何规范性的、可以证明的力量?还是说你把它扔出去,然后看谁赢,强权即公理?

这是个大问题,我没法完整回答,但我要说,有许多制度对我们所有人显然如此有用,它们作为制度根本经不起挑战。最明显的是语言。如果你认为私有财产是个坏主意,好,你可以反对私有财产,可你怎么反对语言?你得用语言来反对语言。我很难看到语言作为一种制度会受到挑战。有些制度是内在邪恶的,奴隶制在我看来就是内在邪恶的,把人当奴隶。但这是可以论证的,是可以在制度结构之内说清楚的。而有些制度,我说过,对每个人都如此明显有益,很难看出有谁能反对它们,语言是最明显的例子,但还有别的。

钱怎么样?钱是一种制度,它有益吗?我认为总的来说是有益的。它是众所周知的万恶之源,可它也是许许多多善事的根源。我试着想象,如果你没有任何买卖的可能,没有任何获得报酬、为你的工作获得报酬的可能,你的生活会是什么样。很难想象你怎么能组织起一种像样的生活。所以有许多无处不在的制度,实际上是无害的。

私有财产呢?我认为私有财产也几乎让每个人受益。可是在今天的美国,私有财产的集中已经如此失衡,那著名的百分之一,财富如此不成比例地集中,在我看来非常不健康。让这么多权力,这么多道义权力,掌握在这么少的人手里,不是运行一个社会的健康方式。首先,这给了他们不成比例的政治权力。这些是我们将不得不面对的真实问题。所以,如果你要问某个特定的制度是好是坏,你得多告诉我一些这个制度是什么,它做什么,它在人类生活中如何运作。

问答:唯物世界中的涌现

最后一位听众接着前面那个从分子到总统的问题追问。他说,有些人会反对把总统、选举这类东西与分子、粒子放在同一个本体论平面上来处理。他希望我多讲一点,从一种唯物主义的、认为世界可以还原为物质的世界观出发,事物如何能从那里涌现,并以某种方式存在于一个不同的层次上。

这是个很好的问题。我希望我讲的东西里已经隐含了这一点:物质与心灵、物质与观念这些传统的区分,我认为全都过时了。我们生活在一个世界里,它的基本结构是物理粒子的结构,而世界的物理特征之中包括意识,我说的是真正的、实实在在的意识,带着它全部的主观性和切身感受。然后,有意识的系统通过集体意向性组织起来,创造出人类文明。这就是从质子到总统的故事。

当然,这个故事里有好几步我们就是不理解。我们不理解生命如何开始,但它开始了。我们不理解意识如何开始。我们也确实不理解人类语言如何起飞,而且我们也许永远不会真正理解,因为没有化石证据。你没法看着化石就断定这些家伙用的是主语在前、动词在后的语言,还是动词在前的语言。你从头骨上看不出这个。所以我们也许永远无法完整地理解这些东西如何发展起来。可它们确实发展起来了。我们确实从一个没有生命的宇宙,至少是一个没有生命的太阳系,演化成了我们。我们也确实在文化上演化成了比狩猎采集生活复杂得多、有趣得多的东西。我们不再只是在林子里跑来跑去,想找到够吃的食物撑过这一天。

本期讲者
约翰·塞尔加州大学伯克利分校哲学教授,言语行为理论与社会本体论的代表人物,著有《言语行为》《社会实在的建构》《创造社会世界》,并以「中文屋」论证闻名。本讲为他在印第安纳大学布卢明顿分校两场讲座中的第二场。
现场提问者印第安纳大学听众,其中一位名为罗伊,提出驾照与餐券的可转让性差异。
章节 · 点击跳转视频
0:00 一个世界:从质子到总统 ▶ 正在看
2:12 社会本体论的悖论 ▶ 正在看
4:41 狗不操心税:制度性事实 ▶ 正在看
7:01 地位功能:钞票不同于梳子 ▶ 正在看
9:29 构成性规则:X 在 C 中算作 Y ▶ 正在看
14:17 反例:没有实物的钱与公司 ▶ 正在看
18:58 言语行为与适配方向 ▶ 正在看
24:41 宣告:说它是,它就是 ▶ 正在看
30:50 地位功能造出道义性权力 ▶ 正在看
35:54 语言是最基本的制度 ▶ 正在看
42:49 独立宣言、人权与词汇之争 ▶ 正在看
52:51 问答:驾照、崩溃与制度好坏 ▶ 正在看
本期论点
本期回应
其他论点
1:37
仅仅让人类现实与物理现实互不矛盾还不够,必须说明前者如何是后者的自然结果
2:04
把世界分成两个互不相干的世界,是思想史上的一个重大错误
3:03
货币、财产、政府、婚姻这类制度性现实由人的主观意识创造,却是客观事实
3:33
一个领域在本体论上是主观的,并不妨碍人们对它做出认识论上客观的陈述
8:03
文明的起源在于人能把不靠物理结构执行的功能赋予物体和人
11:15
构成性规则的结构是「在 C 中 X 算作 Y」,让某物算作它本身并不内在具有的东西
17:50
人类发明了完全不需要任何物理实在的制度,有限责任公司就是最著名的例子 观察
25:44
宣告类言语行为具有双重适配方向:通过话语适应世界的方式,实现世界适应话语
28:53
全部人类制度性实在都由具有宣告逻辑形式的言语行为反复运用所创造
34:42
道义性权力嵌入人类理性,提供独立于意愿倾向的行动理由
37:33
友谊、恋爱关系这类制度带有真实的义务,但一旦被法典化反而会受损
38:32
语言是最基本的人类制度,政府、私有财产、货币等一切其他制度都以语言为前提
43:48
只要一个群体已经拥有语言,它就已经拥有了隐含的社会契约,无需另行订立
48:25
人权是靠「身为人本身即一种地位」这类言语行为创造并维持的普遍地位功能
1:11:19
美国财富向百分之一集中,把过多道义性权力交到极少数人手里,是不健康的治理方式
01一个世界:从质子到总统
0:00
all right the question that i'm going to talk about is i think the largest question in contemporary philosophy today and in a way it's the largest uh question in intellectual life and the question is how do we give an account of ourselves that is consistent with what we know about how the world is anyhow you see the central fact about knowledge is it grows and we know a lot more than we did 100 or 300 years ago and we have a pretty good idea about the basic structure of the universe roughly speaking it's a matter of physical particles in fields of force particles probably the wrong word maybe there's strings or points of mass energy but anyway i leave that i'm paying the physicist to sort that out okay but now if the that's how what the universe consists in is physical particles those physical particles are mindless and meaningless and yet we think that we have lives that are full of consciousness rationality intelligence language ethics aesthetics politics and all sorts of other things now how do
好的,我要讲的这个问题,我认为是当代哲学中最大的问题,某种意义上也是整个思想生活中最大的问题。这个问题就是:我们该如何解释我们自身,而这种解释又要跟我们所知道的世界的实际样貌相一致。你看,关于知识,最核心的一个事实就是它在不断增长。我们今天知道的东西,比一百年前或三百年前多得多。我们对宇宙的基本结构已经有了相当不错的认识。粗略地说,宇宙是由处在力场中的物理粒子构成的。“粒子”这个词可能不太准确,也许是弦,或者是质能的点。不过这个我就不管了,我付钱让物理学家去把它搞清楚。好,那么现在,如果宇宙就是由物理粒子构成的,而这些物理粒子既没有心智也没有意义,可我们却认为自己拥有充满了意识、理性、智能、语言、伦理、美学、政治以及其他种种东西的生活。那么我们
便签引用
1:07
we reconcile the basic physical structure of the universe with our conception of ourselves as conscious rational free agents now maybe we won't succeed in reconciling it maybe we'll have to give up on certain things like free will but at any rate we should start out assuming that our self-conception is more or less accurate and that we that what we've learned from the natural sciences is accurate how do we reconcile the two and it's not enough that they should be consistent you've got to show how the human reality is a natural outcome of the more basic reality you've got to show how once you got protons you're going to get presidents and once you've got electrons you're going to get elections the one has to be a natural consequence of the other okay now last time i talked about one aspect of that problem and that was consciousness and i think that the big mistake in our history is one i pointed out last time and that is the effort to deny that we live in one world the effort to say well really there are
该如何调和宇宙的基本物理结构与我们把自己设想成有意识、有理性的自由主体这一自我观念呢?也许我们最终没能调和成功,也许我们不得不放弃某些东西,比如自由意志。但不管怎样,我们一开始还是应该假定我们的自我观念大体上是准确的,同时我们从自然科学中学到的东西也是准确的。那么我们该如何调和这两者?而且光是让它们彼此不矛盾还不够,你还得说明人类这套现实如何是更基础的那套现实的自然结果。你得说明,一旦有了质子,怎么就会有总统;一旦有了电子,怎么就会有选举。前者必须是后者的自然结果。好,上次我讲了这个问题的一个方面,那就是意识。我认为我们历史上的一个重大错误,也是我上次指出过的,那就是试图否认我们生活在同一个世界里;那种说法认为,其实存在两个世界,我们既生活在科学所描述的
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02社会本体论的悖论
2:12
two worlds that we live in a physical world as described by science and a spiritual world and i think that is a deep mistake i'm going to resist that that i'm going to say we live in one world and i now have to show you how the things that we think are distinctive of human civilization are part of that one world and they're a natural consequence of the more basic reality so i'm going to be talking about uh what uh you could call to use a fancy jargon social ontology the mode of existence of such social phenomena as money and property and government and marriage and universities and universities and income tax deductions and so on there's a huge range of the social ontology now philosophers like paradoxes and i'm going to start with a paradox all of this human reality is created by human consciousness by created by subjective consciousness and yet it's an objective fact it's an objective fact uh that i'm a citizen in the united states that the piece of paper in my wallet is a 20 bill and so on how can there be an
物理世界里,又生活在一个精神世界里。我认为这是个深刻的错误,我要反对这种看法。我要说,我们生活在同一个世界里。而现在我得向你们说明,那些我们认为是人类文明所独有的东西,怎么也是这同一个世界的一部分,怎么是那个更基础的现实的自然结果。所以我要讲的是——用一个时髦点的行话来说——社会本体论,也就是诸如货币、财产、政府、婚姻、大学,还有所得税减免等等这些社会现象的存在方式。社会本体论涵盖的范围非常广。哲学家喜欢悖论,我就先从一个悖论讲起。所有这些人类现实都是由人类意识创造出来的,是由主观意识创造出来的,然而它又是客观事实。比如说,我是美国公民,我钱包里那张纸是一张 20 美元的钞票,这些都是客观事实。那么怎么可能存在一种
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3:24
objective reality created by human subjectivity now those of you who came tuesday know the answer to that the ontological subjectivity the domain does not prevent us from having an epistemically objective account of that domain it's true human consciousness has to create institutional reality but once created we can then state objective facts about it it's an objective fact that i'm a professor in berkeley a citizen in the united states that i owe a lot of credit card debts and all this kind of nonsense that we all live with all right now how does it actually work what is the nature of the existence of this reality and how do the here we are you see i like to think of our history we are as far as we can tell i darwinian natural selection has suited us just fine for a hunter gatherer existence and we apparently haven't had much change in our gene pool in the past 30 000 years but we've had an enormous difference in the mode of existence of human life in those 30 000 years and i want to talk about
由人类主观性创造出来的客观现实呢?周二来听课的各位知道答案:某个领域在本体论上的主观性,并不妨碍我们对这个领域做出认识论上客观的陈述。确实,必须由人类意识来创造制度性现实,但一旦它被创造出来,我们就可以陈述关于它的客观事实。我是伯克利的教授,是美国公民,我欠了一大堆信用卡债——这些都是客观事实,也都是我们每个人都要面对的这类烂事。好,那么它究竟是怎么运作的?这种现实的存在本性是什么?我们是怎么走到这一步的?你看,我喜欢这样来看我们的历史:据我们所知,达尔文式的自然选择让我们适应了用来应付狩猎采集的生活方式是完全够用的,而且在过去三万年里,我们的基因库看起来并没有发生太大变化但在这三万年里,人类的生存方式却发生了巨大的差异,我想谈谈这种结构究竟是什么,我打算先从把我们和其他动物作对比开始,这是个不错的
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03狗不操心税:制度性事实
4:41
what the structure of that is and i'm going to begin by contrasting us with other animals it's it's a good idea uh and a good beginning point to think that we are continuous with other animals we know enough about biology to see the commonality between us and other animals especially us and the primates all the same with all the commonality there is a whole range of terrific differences between us and any other animals known to me my dog my favorite example here is very intelligent but he's not worried about what he's gonna do for christmas vacation or how how he's going to handle the income tax this year he just does not have that kind of worry now what's the matter with him is he uh is he being irresponsible uh well no i think we have an apparatus that gives us a kind of power that he doesn't have and the first notion i want to introduce is the notion of an institutional fact we have the capacity to create institutional facts facts that presuppose human institutions facts like the fact
呃,也是个不错的出发点,去认识到我们和其他动物是连续的,我们对生物学了解得足够多,能看到我们和其他动物之间的共同点尤其是我们和灵长类之间的共同点,话虽如此,在所有这些共同点之外,我们和我所知的任何其他动物之间还是存在一系列巨大的差异,我这里最爱举的例子是我的狗,它非常聪明,但它并不担心圣诞假期要干什么,或者今年的所得税该怎么处理,它就是不会有那种烦恼,那么它是哪里出了问题呢?它是不是不负责任?呃,不是的,我认为我们拥有一套装置,它赋予我们一种它所不具备的能力,我想引入的第一个概念是「制度性事实」这个概念,我们有能力创造制度性事实,也就是以人类制度为前提的事实,比如你们是印第安纳大学的学生和教职人员,或者你们是美国公民这样的事实
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5:53
that you are students and faculty members of the university of indiana or that your citizens of the united states and we need to contrast institutional facts with brute facts and the question is how do you get from a world of brute facts facts that don't presuppose any institutions facts like the fact that hydrogen atoms have one electron and the earth is 93 million miles from the sun how do you get from those brute facts to facts about uh money and citizenship and property and marriage and it seemed to me there was a rather simple answer to that question and i'm going to give you that answer it doesn't quite work but it's pretty good and then i'm going to improve on it it seemed to me it's rather simple you need just three things to get from brute reality to institutional reality first of all you need this remarkable capacity that humans and many other species have to cooperate uh there's a piece of jargon that that we use to describe this you need a capacity for collective intentionality
我们需要把制度性事实和「原始事实」对照起来看,问题在于,你怎么从一个充满原始事实的世界——那些不以任何制度为前提的事实,比如氢原子有一个电子、地球距离太阳九千三百万英里——怎么从这些原始事实,走到关于金钱、公民身份、财产婚姻这些事实?我当时觉得这个问题有一个相当简单的答案,我这就把这个答案讲给你们听,它其实不太站得住脚,但已经相当不错了,然后我再来改进它。在我看来这相当简单,你只需要三样东西,就能从原始实在走到制度实在。首先,你需要人类和许多其他物种都具备的这种非凡能力——合作的能力。呃,我们用一个术语来描述这一点,你需要一种「集体意向性」的能力
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04地位功能:钞票不同于梳子
7:01
for the ability to cooperate with other people okay so you got now these beasts running around the woods and they're able to cooperate with each other what else do you need well humans have a remarkable capacity that some animals have but not all animals and that is they can impose functions on objects they can take an object and give it a function so i'm sorry to give these sorted examples but my pockets are full of objects that will perform various sorted functions like combing my hair or writing on paper or things that are too unmentionable to describe but all of these are functional objects now notice an interesting thing they perform their functions in virtue of their physical structure so i can write with this damn thing but i can't comb my hair with it and i'll i'll show you a thing that i can comb my hair with but i can't write with it all right so far so good but then humans in their in their ingenuity have invented a great idea and it is really the origin of civilization here it is
也就是与他人合作的能力。好,现在你有了这些在树林里跑来跑去、并且能够彼此合作的生物,你还需要什么呢?人类还有一种非凡的能力,某些动物也有,但不是所有动物都有,那就是他们能把功能赋予物体,他们可以拿起一个物体,给它一个功能。很抱歉要举这些不太上台面的例子,但我口袋里装满了各种能执行不同功能的物品,比如梳头发、在纸上写字,或者一些不便提及的东西,但所有这些都是功能性物品。现在注意一件有意思的事它们是凭借自身的物理结构来执行功能的,所以我能用这玩意儿写字,却不能用它梳头我再给你们看个能梳头但不能写字的东西。好,到目前为止都还顺利,但接下来人类以其聪明才智发明了一个了不起的点子,它真的可以说是文明的起源,就是这个
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8:13
you can assign functions to objects and people where the function is not performed in virtue of the physical structure or not solely in virtue of the physical structure but in virtue of the fact that we have assigned a status to the person or the object and with that status a function that can only be performed in virtue of the collective acceptance of that status by the community or at least a sizable number of the members of the community and that's the first basic idea i want to introduce is a notion of a status function all functions are observer relative it only has the function because we have assigned it the function but status functions are remarkable because the status function doesn't perform the function in virtue of its physical structure but in virtue of what well in virtue of the beginning we can say the fact that people accept it as having a certain status and now show off even more sordid objects i carry around with me here is another object that performs a function it's a five dollar bill but
你可以把功能赋予物体和人,而这个功能并不是凭借其物理结构来执行的,或者说不是仅仅凭借物理结构,而是凭借这样一个事实:我们给这个人或这个物体指派了一种「地位」,并且随着这个地位而来的,是一种只有凭借共同体——或者至少是共同体中相当数量的成员——集体接受该地位,才能执行的功能。这就是我想引入的第一个基本概念:「地位功能」。所有功能都是观察者相对的,一个东西之所以有那个功能,是因为我们赋予了它那个功能但地位功能之所以非凡,是因为地位功能并不是凭借其物理结构来执行功能的,而是凭借什么呢?呃,一开始我们可以说,是凭借人们接受它具有某种地位这一事实。现在再来展示几件我随身带着的更上不了台面的东西,这是另一个能执行某种功能的物体,它是一张五美元的钞票,但
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05构成性规则:X 在 C 中算作 Y
9:29
unlike that other stuff i showed you it doesn't perform the function in virtue of its physical structure it performs the function and virtual effect that we accept or recognize or agree it's in virtue of our attitudes that it performs the function of the five dollar bill not in virtue of its physical structure so the question we have to ask is how does that work that's an amazing phenomenon and for a long time it seemed to me that the key to understanding this was that there are certain kind of rules which i call constitutive rules to distinguish them from regulative rules regulative rules regulate uh previously existing or independently existing forms of behavior drive on the right hand side of the road that's a regulative rule but not all rules are like that some rules constitute the very behavior that they regulate because performing the behavior consists in acting in accordance with the rules or at least with a big enough subset of the rules the philosopher's favorite example is always chess
和我刚才给你们看的那些东西不同,它执行功能并不是凭借它的物理结构,它执行功能是凭借我们接受、承认或者同意这样一个事实——正是凭借我们的态度,它才执行了五美元钞票的功能,而不是凭借它的物理结构。所以我们必须问的问题是,这到底是怎么运作的?这是个惊人的现象。在很长一段时间里,我都觉得理解这一点的关键在于,存在某一类规则我称之为「构成性规则」,以区别于「调节性规则」。调节性规则调节的是呃,先前已经存在或者独立存在的行为形式,比如靠马路右侧行驶,这就是一条调节性规则,但并非所有规则都是这样的。有些规则构成了它们所调节的那种行为本身,因为从事这种行为就在于按照这些规则去行动,或者至少是按照其中足够大的一个子集去行动。哲学家最爱举的例子永远是国际象棋。事情并不是这样的:一大群人在棋盘上推来推去一些小木块,然后某个天才说,伙计们,我们得
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10:38
it was not the case that a whole lot of people were pushing bits of wood around on boards and some genius said fellas we got to get some rules because you're always banging into my bishop with your knight no it's not like that rather playing chess consists in acting in accordance with these rules and system typically these rules come in system the rules of chess are the rules of football or a much more powerful example the united states constitution it's a set of constitutive rules now what do they look like these constitutive rules where they have a peculiar structure they have the structure where something counts as something that it so to speak isn't intrinsically x counts as y in context c so to take our chess example such and such a position counts as a legal night move such and such a position counts as you being in check such and such a form of check counts as you being in checkmate getting a majority of votes in the electoral college accounts as being president-elect and being sworn in
定点规则了,因为你老是用你的马撞我的象。不是这样的,恰恰相反,下国际象棋就在于按照这些规则行动,而且这些规则通常是成体系的,象棋的规则、橄榄球的规则,或者一个更有力的例子——美国宪法,它就是一套构成性规则。那么它们长什么样呢?这些构成性规则有一种独特的结构,它们的结构是:某样东西被算作另一样它本身——可以这么说——并不内在地是的东西。「在语境C中,X算作Y」。拿我们的象棋例子来说,某某位置算作一个合法的马的走法,某某局面算作你被将军了,某种形式的将军算作你被将死了;在选举人团中获得多数票算作成为当选总统,而由最高法院首席大法官
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11:47
by the chief justice of the supreme court counts as becoming president of the united states you build this structure up where you count something as something else and it seemed to me that's how we do it we build civilization by repeated application of constitutive rules now you might think well that's too pathetic an apparatus you can't build civilization with that it looks too fragile but it has two formal properties that are remarkable one formal property is it iterates upward indefinitely so watch i make noises through my mouth they count as sentences of english some of those utterances of sentences count as the making of promises some promises count as undertaking a legal contract now watch what's happening in this case we have x1 counts as y1 but y1 equals x2 and that counts as y2 and we keep going up so in the case of a marriage in the case of the contract making the noise counts as making a promise making that promise makes as counts as performing creating a certain kind of contract and certain kinds of
主持宣誓,算作成为美国总统。你就这样建立起一个结构,把某样东西算作另一样东西。在我看来我们就是这么干的,我们通过反复运用构成性规则来建造文明现在你可能会想,这套装置也太单薄了吧,靠它可建不起文明,它看上去太脆弱了但它有两个非凡的形式属性。一个形式属性是,它可以无限地向上迭代。看好了,我用嘴发出一些声音它们算作英语的句子;其中某些句子的说出算作作出承诺;某些承诺又算作订立一份法律合同。现在注意这里发生了什么,我们有 X1 算作 Y1,但 Y1 等于 X2,而它又算作 Y2我们就这样一直往上走。所以拿婚姻、拿合同的例子来说,发出声音算作作出承诺,作出那个承诺算作创设了某种合同,而某些种类的
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13:10
contract count as getting married now in the state of california when you get married all hell breaks loose from an institutional point of view you're entitled to spousal benefits and pregnancy leaves even if you're a male you can get a pregnancy leave and i don't know what theory they have but in any case there are all these things that go on when you get this institutional status so you have the status whereby you are married that's an institutional fact and that gives you a set of status functions you have certain rights duties and obligations okay another remarkable feature of this apparatus this x counts as y and c is it interlocks with other status functions so i don't just have money but i have money in my bank account at the bank of america on telegraph avenue in berkeley california it's put there by my employers the regions of the university and i use it to pay my state and federal income tax my credit card debts and a whole lot of other things now notice just about every noun i use there with a
合同算作结婚了。在加利福尼亚州,你一结婚,从制度的角度看,那可就天翻地覆了:你有资格享受配偶福利和产假,哪怕你是男性也能休产假,我不知道他们是按什么理论来的,但不管怎样,当你获得这种制度地位时,就会有这么一大堆事情随之而来所以你有了「已婚」这个地位,这是一个制度性事实,而它给了你一整套地位功能,你有了某些权利、职责和义务。好,这套装置——这个「在C中X算作Y」——的另一个非凡特征是,它会和其他地位功能相互咬合。所以我不只是有钱,我是在加利福尼亚州伯克利电报大道上的美国银行有一个账户,里面有钱。钱是我的雇主——大学董事会——存进去的,我用它来缴纳州税和联邦所得税、还信用卡债,还有一大堆别的事情。现在注意,我刚才用的几乎每一个名词,除了
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06反例:没有实物的钱与公司
14:17
possible exception of telegraph avenue named a status function it named some institutional thing the bank of america my employers the university of california so one institution functions only by locking into a whole lot of other institutions so it looks like a pretty good beginning to a theory we're able to account for status functions by saying they arrive they arise as a result of application of constitutive rules and the constitutive rules look more powerful are more powerful than they look on the surface because they keep going up indefinitely you can keep creating new institutional facts and they interlock with each other nice theory but philosophers will give you some counter examples and i want to tell you what's wrong with it and then i'm going to improve on it okay so how we doing i hope i'm not going too fast because my natural temptation is i want to get to the part that most interests me but in any case i think everybody looks like they're following me so far all right here are some interesting problems with
电报大道可能算例外,都指称了一个地位功能,都指称了某种制度性的东西:美国银行、我的雇主、加利福尼亚大学。所以一个制度之所以能运作,只是因为它咬合进了一大堆其他制度里。所以这看起来是一个相当不错的理论开端,我们能够解释地位功能,说它们是运用构成性规则的结果,而构成性规则比它们表面上看起来更有力量,因为它们可以无限向上延伸,你可以不断创造新的制度性事实,而且它们彼此咬合好理论,但哲学家们会给你举一些反例,我想告诉你们它错在哪里,然后我再来改进它。好,我们进度怎么样?我希望我讲得不算太快,因为我天然的冲动是想赶紧讲到我最感兴趣的那部分,但不管怎样,我觉得到目前为止大家看上去都跟得上好,这套说法有一些有意思的问题,有些是我自己想到的,但有些是我哲学圈里的好同事们想到的
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15:21
this some i thought of myself but some my friendly colleagues in philosophy thought of they're called counter examples here's a difficulty i thought of myself often you don't need a rule to create an institutional fact a bunch of kids can uh just decide that somebody's gonna be the captain of the softball team they don't have to have a constitution uh to appeal to that they just do it they just haul off and and uh count this guy as the captain of the softball team but furthermore and this is more troublesome sometimes you don't even need an x term you can create an institutional effect out of thin air and my favorite example was always money and i like to haul out a twenty dollar bill and show it off but the fact is most money has no physical existence at all there is no x that counts as a twenty dollar uh bill in my bank account you see i'm very naive and i think if i give these guys the money and it's my bank account there ought to be a drawer with my name on it where they keep my money and i want to go and
这些叫作反例。这是我自己想到的一个困难:很多时候,你并不需要一条规则来创造一个制度性事实一群孩子可以呃,直接决定让某人当垒球队的队长,他们不需要有一部宪法呃可以援引,他们就这么做了,他们就直接一挥手,把这个人算作垒球队的队长。但更进一步说,而且这一点更麻烦,有时候你甚至连一个 X 项都不需要,你可以凭空创造出一个制度性事实。我最爱举的例子一直是钱,我喜欢掏出一张二十美元的钞票来展示一番,但事实是,大多数钱根本没有物理存在。并不存在一个 X,它算作我银行账户里的二十美元。你看,我这人很天真,我觉得如果我把钱给了这些人,而且这是我的账户,那就应该有一个抽屉,上面写着我的名字,他们把我的钱放在里面,我想去银行看看我的钱。可惜事情不是
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16:34
see my money in the bank well that's not how it works it's very disconcerting your money has no physical existence at all there are magnetic traces on computer disks in the bowels of the bank but those magnetic traces haven't got any money glued to them they are representations of money now here's a remarkable fact in the case of money which after all is very powerful you don't need any actual object to bear the status function just the representation will do and we could buy and sell just by exchanging representations and that's what we're moving toward with a debit card with a debit card you don't actually have any cash any currency that backs up the exchange you just exchange the numerical value you change the numerical value in your account for a numerical value in somebody else's account this is mind-boggling for philosophers as i told you last time to be a philosopher you got to allow yourself to be astounded by what any sane person takes for granted okay now i am astounded by this fact about
这么运作的,这非常让人不安。你的钱根本没有物理存在,在银行的机器深处有一些电脑磁盘上的磁性痕迹,但那些磁性痕迹上并没有粘着钱,它们是钱的表征。现在这里有一个非凡的事实:在钱这个例子里——钱毕竟是非常有力量的——你根本不需要任何实际的物体来承载这个地位功能光有表征就够了。而且我们可以仅仅通过交换表征来进行买卖,这正是我们正在走向的方向,比如借记卡。用借记卡的时候,你其实并没有任何现金、任何通货在背后支撑这笔交易,你只是交换数值,把你账户里的数值变成别人账户里的数值这对哲学家来说是难以想象的。正如我上次告诉你们的,要当一个哲学家,你得允许自己被任何一个正常人都视为理所当然的事情所震惊。好,现在我就被关于钱的这个事实震惊了——根本没有实际的通货
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17:48
money that there is no actual currency here's an even more astounding fact and that is in their ingenuity humans have invented whole institutions that do not require any physical reality at all and the most famous example is the limited liability corporation now there's a wonderful research assistant i have called google and if i look up on google the law for creating corporations in the state of california it just says you you create a corporation by saying you're creating a corporation that's all i have to do as it says you file articles of incorporation what's going on in these cases how can there be a powerful institution corporations that have no physical existence at all see that corporation may have a building which is its office but that's not the corporation that's just the building the actual corporation is purely abstract so what's going on okay now i want to start the second part of the lecture where i'm going to try to show how to assimilate this account that i gave you into a much more general
这里还有一个更令人震惊的事实,那就是人类以其聪明才智,发明了一整套根本不需要任何物理实在的制度,其中最著名的例子就是有限责任公司。我有一位很棒的研究助手,叫谷歌,如果我在谷歌上查加利福尼亚州关于设立公司的法律它就说,你通过声称你要设立一家公司来设立一家公司。我要做的就这些,它说你提交公司设立章程。这些情况里到底发生了什么?怎么会有一种强大的制度——公司——却根本没有物理存在?你看,那家公司可能有一栋楼作为它的办公室,但那不是公司,那只是一栋楼,真正的公司是纯粹抽象的。那么到底是怎么回事?好,现在我想开始讲座的第二部分,我要试着说明,如何把我刚才给你们的这套说法,吸收进一个更为一般的
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07言语行为与适配方向
18:58
account and to do that i need to tell you a little bit about how language works because my essential message is going to be that human civilization is created by a certain very specific type of speech act by a very specific type of language act and we're not all that smart that we can do new and original things every time we apply the same thing over and over again that's what i'm gonna that's the bottom line of my discussion but i want to have to work up to that okay so how we doing i'm gonna take a drink of water and catch my breath and go into the next part now human beings have another remarkable trait language now we're familiar uh with the idea that there are signaling systems among animals and some of them are rich enough i think to be called a language i think the b language probably qualifies as a language not you know there's not going to be any proofs uh uh in the among the bees but it's clearly a signaling system that represents information in a complex fashion and one of the things i like about it
理论里。要做到这一点,我需要跟你们讲一点语言是怎么运作的,因为我的核心观点将会是:人类文明是由某一种非常特定类型的言语行为、由一种非常特定类型的语言行为创造出来的而我们并没有聪明到每次都能做出全新的、原创的事情,我们是把同一件事一遍又一遍地反复运用这就是我要讲的、我讨论的核心结论,但我得一步步铺垫到那里。好,我们进度怎么样?我要喝口水,喘口气,然后进入下一部分。人类还有另一个非凡的特征,那就是语言我们呃都熟悉这样一个观念:动物之间存在信号系统,而且其中有些我认为丰富到足以被称为一种语言。我认为蜜蜂的语言大概够得上算一种语言,倒不是说,你知道,蜜蜂当中会有什么证明呃呃,但它显然是一个以复杂方式表征信息的信号系统。而且我喜欢它的一点是,很清楚这不只是刺激—反应的事情。我最爱的实验是这个
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20:10
it's clear that it's not just a matter of stimulus and response my favorite experiment was this one they took a a boatload of flowers and carted it out in the middle of a lake and then the bee went out in the middle of the lake found this boatload of flowers and she went back to the hive and told all our sisters they're all females in the society told her sisters they're all these great flowers out there in the middle of the lake they didn't show any interest at all they just didn't believe it that there were all these flowers to be found in the middle of the lake now i think that's very human of them i like that okay so now i i don't know how what you're going to do with a b language but i know the things you can do with human language that you cannot do with any others and i want to tell you about how that works human speech acts typically have this kind of structure you have a certain force what austin called illocusionary force and a propositional content so i can predict that you will leave the room
他们弄了一船的花,把它拖到湖中央然后有只蜜蜂飞到湖中央,发现了这一船的花,她就回到蜂巢,告诉她所有的姐妹——这个社会里全是雌性——告诉她的姐妹们说湖中央那边有好多好花。结果她们完全不感兴趣,她们就是不相信湖中央会有这么多花可采。我觉得这一点特别有人味儿,我喜欢这一点。好,现在我不知道你拿蜜蜂的语言能做什么,但我知道有些事情你能用人类语言做到,而用任何其他语言都做不到,我想跟你们讲讲这是怎么回事。人类的言语行为通常有这样一种结构:你有某种力量,也就是奥斯汀所说的「以言行事的力量」(illocutionary force),加上一个命题内容。所以我可以预测你将会离开这个房间
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21:11
i can order that you will leave the room i can ask whether you will leave the room in each case the same proposition as a different kind of speech act a different kind of what often called illocusionary acts now if you look at that you wonder how many of those kinds of things are there and one of the ways of dis distinguishing among them is distinguish ways they relate to reality so the philosopher's favorite the statement is supposed to be true or false and it's true whether or not if the if the uh statement up here matches the reality down here and i think in simple metaphors think of that as having a fit where the word is supposed to fit the world that's the word to world direction of fit and the simplest mark for whether a speech act has that direction of fit is can you literally say that it's true or false these are true or false but of course not all speech acts are like that sometimes you give somebody an order or you make a promise and there you're supposed to change reality if it's a promise or the
我可以命令你离开这个房间,我也可以询问你是否将会离开这个房间。在每种情况下,同一个命题却是不同种类的言语行为,是不同种类的、通常被称为「以言行事行为」的东西。现在如果你看着这一点,你会想,这类东西一共有多少种呢?区分它们的方法之一,是区分它们与实在发生关联的方式所以哲学家最爱的那种——陈述——应该是有真假的,而它之所以为真,是取决于上面这个陈述是否与下面这个实在相匹配。我觉得用简单的比喻来说,可以把它想成一种「契合」,词语应该去契合世界——这就是「话语适应世界」的适配方向。判断一个言语行为是否属于这种适配方向,最简单的标志就是:你能不能说它字面上是真的或假的。这些是有真假的,但当然并不是所有言语行为都这样。有时候你给别人下一个命令,或者你做出一个承诺,这时候如果是承诺,就该由你去改变现实;或者
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22:22
the person given the order is supposed to change reality to match the content of the speech act is supposed to change the world to match the words so this kind over here has the world to word direction of fit the world is supposed to change the match the world and you'd admit the world and the word sorry and you don't call those true or false the order is said to be obeyed or disobeyed the promise is said to be kept or broken so you got these two basic ways that language has of relating to reality you represent how things are that's the word to world true false direction of it or you try to change reality so it matches how things are in the representation and that's orders and promises now sometimes you get cases where the fit is taken for granted when i apologize for stepping on your foot i'm not trying to get your foot stepped on and not claiming that i stepped on it i'm just expressing my regret so there we just take the fit for granted so we've got different classes of speech acts though corresponding to these we
接受命令的那个人应该去改变现实,让现实符合这个言语行为的内容——是要去改变世界来符合话语。所以这一类具有「世界适应话语」的适配方向,是世界要改变来符合话语——抱歉,是世界来符合话语——而且你不会说这些是真的还是假的。命令我们会说被服从或被违抗,承诺我们会说被遵守或被违背。所以语言与现实发生关联有这两种基本方式:你描述事情是什么样的,这就是「话语适应世界」、有真假的适配方向;或者你试图改变现实,让现实符合表征中所说的样子,这就是命令和承诺。现在有时候会出现适配被视为理所当然的情况,比如当我为踩到你的脚而道歉时,我并不是想让你的脚被踩到,也不是在断言我踩到了它,我只是在表达我的歉意。所以在那里我们把适配当作既定事实。因此我们有了不同类别的言语行为,与这些相对应:我们有断言类,其目的是告诉我们现实中事情是怎样的,这包括
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23:32
have an assertive class the aim of which is to tell us how things are in reality and that includes statements and descriptions all the philosopher's favorites are in these assertives then you have the directive class and that includes orders and commands these at these have this direction of fit the directives have this direction of fit directives are orders and commands as well as well as suggestions and requirements okay but now there's another class where you commit yourself to doing something and those i call commissives the commissive class and the philosopher's favorite is the promise where you promise vow threat pledge and thus create reasons for doing something i'm going through this fast but i want you to get the basic idea language has different ways of relating to reality and the two favorite ways are this way where you try to say how things are in the world and this way which comes breaks into two kinds hearer based the directive and speaker base the commissive the directive you're trying to get somebody
陈述和描述——哲学家最爱的那些例子都在断言类里。然后你有指令类,包括命令和号令,这些具有这种适配方向。指令类具有这种适配方向。指令类包括命令和号令,也包括建议和要求。好,但现在还有另一类,就是你让自己承担做某事的义务,这些我称之为承诺类,承诺类,而哲学家最爱的例子就是许诺,你承诺、发誓、威胁、保证,从而为做某事创造出理由。我讲得比较快,但我希望你们抓住基本思路:语言与现实发生关联有不同的方式,最主要的两种方式是这种——你试图说出世界上事情是怎样的;以及这种——它又分为两类:以听者为基础的指令类,和以说话者为基础的承诺类。指令类是你试图让别人去做某事,承诺类是你让自己承担去做某事的义务。
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08宣告:说它是,它就是
24:41
to do something in the commission you're committing yourself to doing something now there is this weird class the expressives where you apologize thank congratulate and those i i just call expressives where the aim is not to fit reality but to express an attitude but now here is the amazing thing there is an amazing group of speech acts that i call declarations and those are the cases where you make something the case by just saying that it's the case the chairman can adjourn the meeting by saying the meeting is adjourned i and you can fire an employee just by saying you're fired you can hire somebody just by saying you're hired or you can pronounce a couple husband and wife if you're duly authorized by saying i pronounce you husband and wife now what's going on in these cases what i'm going on what is going on i'm going to put very simply by saying in these cases you get a double direction of fit you get a world-to-word direction of fit when you say the meeting is adjourned because the world changes it's now
现在还有这个奇特的一类,表达类,你道歉、致谢、祝贺,这些我就叫它们表达类,其目的不是去符合现实,而是表达一种态度。但接下来是最惊人的一点:有一组极其了不起的言语行为,我称之为宣告类,就是那种你仅仅通过说某件事情是这样,就使它成为这样的情形。主席可以通过说「散会」来宣布会议结束,你可以仅仅通过说「你被解雇了」来解雇一个员工,你可以仅仅通过说「你被录用了」来雇用某人;或者如果你有正当授权,你可以通过说「我宣布你们结为夫妻」来宣布一对新人结为夫妻。那么这些情形里发生了什么呢?我要非常简单地说明这里发生的事情:在这些情形中,你得到了双重适配方向。你得到了「世界适应话语」的适配方向,因为当你说「会议结束」时,世界发生了改变——会议现在结束了,会议现在散了;
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25:58
adjourned the meeting is now adjourned but the way it became adjourned is you represented it as being adjourned that is to say you achieved the world to word direction of it by way of the word to world direction of fit you perform not two speech acts you didn't make a statement that the meetings adjourn and then given order that it be adjourned you made one speech act that included both that's a stunning fact now how do those work well the favorite examples are austin's examples of performatives uh where you make an order by saying i order you to leave the room you make a promise by saying i promise to come and see you you adjourn the meeting by saying the meeting is adjourned you've given bequeath your watch to your nephew by saying i give and bequeath my watch to my nephew all of those cases you have a verb or verb phrase such as promise or order or adjourn but you don't always need a special sentence to do that you can do it a special kind of sentence you can do it with any sentence provided it's understood in the
但它之所以结束,是因为你把它表征为已经结束。也就是说,你是通过「话语适应世界」的适配方向实现了「世界适应话语」的适配方向。你执行的不是两个言语行为——你并没有先做一个「会议结束了」的陈述,然后再下一个「让会议结束」的命令。你只做了一个言语行为,而它同时包含两者。这是个惊人的事实。那么这些是怎么运作的呢?最典型的例子是奥斯汀举的施行话语的例子,比如你通过说「我命令你离开这个房间」来下命令;你通过说「我承诺来看你」来做出承诺;你通过说「会议结束」来宣布散会;你通过说「我把我的手表赠予我侄子」来把手表遗赠给侄子。所有这些情形里,你都有一个动词或动词短语,比如承诺、命令或宣布结束。但你并不总是需要一个特殊的句子来做到这一点,你可以用任何句子来做,只要它以恰当的方式被理解就行。我最喜欢的例子还是
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27:01
right way and again my favorite example is in my wallet and again it's another case of being astounded by the obvious there are stunning philosophical claims made on this sheet of paper it says this note is legal tender for all debts public and private now we're all epistemologists and our natural inclination is to say how the hell do they know has there been a study has there been a survey they say arrogantly it's legal tender for all debts public and private what's the evidence that it's legal tender and the answer of course is they don't discover that it's legal tender they make it legal tender by declaring it to be legal tender that's a declaration so the declaration there this nodal legal tender looks like an ordinary statement of fact but it's not it isn't that they did a serious survey and discovered yep really is legal tender no they made it legal tender by declaration now this is a remarkable fact that human beings have the capacity to create a reality simply by declaring it to exist
在我的钱包里,这又是一个被显而易见之事震撼的例子。这张纸上写着一些惊人的哲学主张,它说「本券为偿付一切公共和私人债务之法定货币」。而我们都是认识论者,我们本能的反应是:他们究竟怎么知道的?做过研究吗?做过调查吗?他们那么自负地说:这是对一切公共和私人债务的法定货币。有什么证据表明它是法定货币呢?答案当然是,他们并不是发现它是法定货币,他们是通过宣布它是法定货币,使它成为法定货币的。这就是一个宣告。所以那里的宣告——「本券为法定货币」——看起来像一个普通的事实陈述,但它不是。并不是说他们做了一项认真的调查,然后发现:没错,它确实是法定货币。不是的,他们是通过宣告使它成为法定货币的。这是一个了不起的事实:人类有能力仅仅通过宣告某个现实存在,就创造出这个现实。
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28:21
performatives to repeat are the favorite example but it needn't be a a performative verb there needn't be a special verb that you use as in i i hereby adjourn the meeting or i hereby order you to leave the room you can just make a statement and if it's accepted uh as generally creating the reality that it describes then you have successfully performed a declaration now i want to make the strongest claim of the whole lecture and that's this all of human institutional reality uh money property government marriage universities cocktail parties summer vacations uh and all the rest of it that is created by i have to put this carefully representations that have the logical form of the speech act of declaration it needn't be explicit you don't have to come out and say explicitly you're the boss or we hereby make you the boss that would be an explicit declaration but you can make somebody the boss just by treating her as the boss just by always referring to her as the boss by by representing her as being the boss you
再说一遍,施行话语是最典型的例子,但它不一定要有一个施行动词,不一定要有一个特殊的动词让你使用,比如「我特此宣布散会」或「我特此命令你离开这个房间」。你可以只是做一个陈述,而如果它被普遍接受为创造出了它所描述的那个现实,那么你就成功地执行了一个宣告。现在我要提出整场讲座中最强的一个主张,就是这个:全部人类的制度性实在——货币、财产、政府、婚姻、大学、鸡尾酒会、暑假,以及所有其余的一切——都是由(我得措辞谨慎一点)具有宣告这种言语行为之逻辑形式的表征所创造的。它不一定要是明示的,你不必站出来明确地说「你是老板」或者「我们特此任命你为老板」,那会是一个明示的宣告;但你也可以仅仅通过把她当作老板来对待,仅仅通过总是称她为老板,通过把她表征为老板,来使她成为老板。你可以使「她是老板」成为事实。所以在所有这些
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29:36
can make it the case that she is the boss so what happens in all of these phenomena i is that you create an institutional fact by representing that institutional fact as existing and that has the logical form of the declaration so the shorthand is simply to say all of human institutional reality unless all of what is distinctive about human societies how we differ from other animal societies is created by repeated applications of the same type of speech act the declaration now just to have a name for those i want to tie that into what i said earlier about how we have the capacity to uh assign functions through collective intentionality and some of these functions are status functions and the thesis that i'm now advancing is this all status functions are created by declaration they're all created by the same type of speech act i have to qualify that and say by representations that have the logical form of the declaration because you needn't do it explicitly you can do it just by accepting something or recognizing it
现象中发生的事情是:你通过把某个制度性事实表征为存在,从而创造出这个制度性事实,而这具有宣告的逻辑形式。所以简而言之就是:全部人类的制度性实在,或者说人类社会中一切独特之处、我们与其他动物社会的区别所在,都是由同一种言语行为——宣告——的反复运用所创造的。现在,为了给它们起个名字,我想把这一点和我前面讲的联系起来:我们有能力通过集体意向性来赋予功能,而其中一些功能是地位功能。我现在提出的论点是:所有地位功能都是通过宣告创造出来的,它们全都是由同一种言语行为创造的。我得限定一下,说是由具有宣告之逻辑形式的表征创造的,因为你不必明示地去做,你可以仅仅通过接受某个东西或承认它来做到。但必须有一个表征,使你能够做到这一点,能够创造出
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09地位功能造出道义性权力
30:50
but there has to be a representation that enables you to to do that to create the institutional fact okay but now you've got a whole lot of interesting questions if i'm right so far that this is the distinctive feature of human civilization it looks like we get an interesting set of equations and the equations come out as this status functions where you have a a a function that is performed in virtue of the collective acceptance of a status status functions are co-extensive with institutional facts uh institutional facts are created for the purpose of creating these status functions what's the point why do we create all these status functions why do we make somebody chairman of the department pronounce somebody husband and wife make somebody present in the united states create money and private property and government and marriage marriage and the answer is all of those are status functions yes but what's the function what's the point of the function and the answer to that is we do it for power
这个制度性事实。好,那么现在你会遇到一大堆有趣的问题。如果我到目前为止是对的,如果这是人类文明的独特特征,那么看起来我们得到了一组有趣的等式,这些等式是这样的:地位功能,就是你有一个凭借集体接受而得以履行的功能,地位功能与制度性事实是外延相同的。制度性事实的创造就是为了创造这些地位功能。那么意义何在呢?我们为什么要创造所有这些地位功能?我们为什么要让某人当系主任、宣布某两人结为夫妻、让某人当美国总统、创造货币、私有财产、政府和婚姻?答案是,所有这些都是地位功能。是的,可功能是什么?这个功能的意义何在?答案是:我们这么做是为了权力。
便签引用
32:06
all of those create power structures all institutional reality is a matter of creating power structures so if you have a five dollar bill you have a power that you don't have if you don't have that money if you're a chairman of the philosophy department you have power that you don't have if you're not german a lot of the powers are negative powers so as a professor in berkeley i have a positive power uh to get a parking permit that won't give me a parking space but at least i have a permit i'm getting a right to get me out right to look for a parking space but i also have negative powers i'm under an obligation to show up and teach my students on such and such a day so status functions are institutional facts institutional facts without exception create powers but the powers are of a very peculiar kind they're what i call deontic powers and i call them that because the names of these types of powers would include rights duties obligations authorizations permissions requirements and others in that family
所有这些都创造出权力结构。全部制度性实在都是在创造权力结构。所以如果你有一张五美元的钞票,你就拥有了一种权力,而如果你没有那笔钱,你就没有这种权力。如果你是哲学系的系主任,你就拥有一种权力,而如果你不是系主任,你就没有。很多权力是消极权力。所以作为伯克利的教授,我有一种积极的权力,可以拿到停车许可证——这不会给我一个车位,但至少我有一张许可证,我获得了一种权利,一种去寻找停车位的权利。但我同时也有消极权力:我有义务在某某天出现在课堂上给我的学生上课。所以地位功能就是制度性事实,制度性事实无一例外地创造出权力,但这些权力是一种非常特别的类型,是我所谓的道义性权力。我这样称呼它们,是因为这类权力的名称包括权利、责任、义务、授权、许可、要求等等这一族的东西。
便签引用
33:20
now this again is a remarkable fact about human beings as far as i know a pack of dogs does not create a system of obligations and rights and duties uh within the system within the pack they may create a hierarchy where there's an alpha male and an alpha female but they do not create deontic powers with institutional facts and status functions the reason that it's such a big deal that status functions create are institutional facts they're created by this constitutive operation they're all created by status function declarations and the reason that's such a big deal is that these well i put in here status function declarations because the speech acts in question that create the status functions have the logical form of the declarations and so i call them status function declarations and they create in creating institutional reality they create a system of deontic powers and deonic powers are remarkable in this respect they lock into human rationality they lock in the human rationality in such a way
这又是关于人类的一个了不起的事实。据我所知,一群狗并不会在群体内部创造出一套义务、权利和责任的体系。它们可能会形成一种等级秩序,有头狼和头母狗,但它们不会创造出道义性权力、制度性事实和地位功能。之所以说地位功能创造……地位功能就是制度性事实,它们是由这种构成性运作创造的,它们全都是由地位功能宣告创造的。而之所以说这件事意义重大,是因为这些——我在这里写上「地位功能宣告」,是因为创造地位功能的那些言语行为具有宣告的逻辑形式,所以我称它们为地位功能宣告。它们在创造制度性实在的同时,创造出一套道义性权力体系。而道义性权力在这一点上非常了不起:它们嵌入了人类的理性之中。它们以这样一种方式嵌入人类理性,
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34:42
that they give you reasons for acting that are independent of your inclinations so if you recognize an obligation as a binding obligation you recognize that you have a desire independent reason for acting on that obligation i'll give you a real life example uh a nice guy invited me to go to bloomington indiana and give some lectures it seemed like a great idea many months away but then a day comes when you've got to get up early in the morning and make your way to san francisco airport and then it's just well you know what it's like you got to stand in line you got to take your shoes off and you got to eat airplane food and you don't even get much of that anymore and then worst of all you gotta try to put your elbow where some other guy's trying to put his elbow and so on so nobody does it for fun on the other hand there was no question i had made a promise i had created an institutional fact and that is my promising that institutional fact had created a reason for acting that was independent of my inclination i had a
即它们给你提供了独立于你的意愿倾向的行动理由。所以如果你把一项义务承认为一项有约束力的义务,你就承认自己有一个独立于欲望的理由去履行这项义务。我给你们举个真实的例子。有个很不错的人邀请我去印第安纳州的布卢明顿做几场讲座,当时看起来是个好主意,因为还有好几个月呢。可后来那一天到了,你得一大早起床,赶到旧金山机场,然后就是——嗯,你知道那是什么滋味,你得排队,你得脱鞋,你还得吃飞机餐,而且现在连那都吃不到多少了。最糟糕的是,你还得设法把胳膊肘放在另一个人也想放胳膊肘的地方,诸如此类。所以没人会为了找乐子去干这事。另一方面,这事毫无疑问:我做过一个承诺,我创造了一个制度性事实,也就是我的许诺。那个制度性事实创造出了一个独立于我意愿倾向的行动理由。我有一个
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10语言是最基本的制度
35:54
reason for a a coming and here i am i gave this example once in chicago to a famous seminar uh occupied by a very uh a conservative economist to put it charitably and they don't think anybody ever did anything for a desire independent reason and they said you just came to chicago because you were worried about what we would think of you if you didn't come to chicago i didn't have the heart to tell them i don't give a damn what you guys think i didn't have the heart to tell them that anyway i made it there i got out of there alive anyway so here is the uh the thesis that i am advancing we live in a sea of status functions yeah they the marvelous thing is they're almost totally invisible because you take them for granted uh the clothes on my back are my private property i am a citizen of the united states a possessor of a valid california driver's license uh the uh hour of money on my uh various credit cards and so on the list is huge a lot many status functions of the kind that i described to you are codified
理由要来,所以我就来了。我有一次在芝加哥的一个著名研讨班上举过这个例子,那里坐着一位非常……客气地说,是一位非常保守的经济学家。他们不认为有谁会出于独立于欲望的理由做任何事。他们说:你来芝加哥只是因为你担心如果你不来,我们会怎么看你。我实在不忍心告诉他们,我根本不在乎你们这些人怎么想。我实在不忍心告诉他们这个。总之我还是到了那儿,也活着离开了。总之,这就是我要提出的论点:我们生活在地位功能的汪洋大海之中。而奇妙的是,它们几乎完全是不可见的,因为你把它们视为理所当然。我身上穿的衣服是我的私有财产,我是美国公民,持有有效的加州驾照,还有我各种信用卡上的额度等等,这个清单长得很。我向你们描述的那类地位功能中,有很多被法典化了,
便签引用
37:14
it's easy to make a law about these and laws naturally tend to proliferate why because the status function only exists if it's represented as existing and if you've got the representation then it's relatively easy to codify the representation there are some status functions that are not codified and would suffer if they were codified i think of cocktail parties love affairs and friendship now all of those are status functions the test is is there a set of obligations and other deontic powers that go with inviting people to a cocktail party or having a friend are there obligations of friendship or obligation of a love affair and the answer seems to me in every case yes but you don't want to try to codify it because the partly you're inventing it as you go along you're inventing the structure of the institutional fact if it's a friendship or a love affair and if it gets codified you get serious then it then it becomes much more flexible now you will suffer from problems when you go to other countries where they have
因为对这些东西立法很容易,而法律自然倾向于不断增生。为什么?因为地位功能只有在被表征为存在时才存在,而一旦你有了这个表征,把这个表征法典化就相对容易了。也有一些地位功能没有被法典化,而且如果被法典化反而会受损。我想到的是鸡尾酒会、恋爱关系和友谊。所有这些都是地位功能。判断标准是:有没有一套义务和其他道义性权力伴随着邀请别人参加鸡尾酒会,或者伴随着拥有一个朋友?有没有友谊的义务,或者恋爱关系的义务?在我看来每一种情况的答案都是有。但你不会想去把它法典化,因为部分而言,你是在一边走一边发明它。如果是友谊或恋爱关系,你是在发明这个制度性事实的结构;而如果它被法典化了,你较起真来,那它就会变得……(本该是)灵活得多。当然,当你去到别的国家时你会遇到麻烦,那里
便签引用
38:18
maybe a different conception of a love affair a different conception of friendship and you can get in a lot of trouble i won't even go through into the details about that about the different conceptions okay but now another result that comes out of this out of this discussion is that language unlike my earlier view is not just one system of status functions among others it's the basic human institution in this sense all other human institutions that i mentioned like a government and private property and universities all of them presuppose language you can have a society that has a language but doesn't have money or private property or in government but you can't have the converse you could not have if an anthropologist comes back from the amazon basin and says her tribe has language has language but they don't have private property and they don't have a government that makes sense but if she comes back and says they have private property government marriage uh and money but they do not have a language we
对恋爱关系可能有不同的理解,对友谊有不同的理解,你可能会惹上不少麻烦。我就不细讲那方面的细节了,不讲那些不同的理解了。好,现在从这番讨论中还得出另一个结论,那就是:语言——不同于我早先的观点——并不只是众多地位功能体系中的一个,它在这个意义上是最基本的人类制度:我提到的所有其他人类制度,比如政府、私有财产、大学,所有这些都以语言为前提。你可以有一个拥有语言但没有货币、没有私有财产、也没有政府的社会,但你不可能有反过来的情况。如果一位人类学家从亚马逊流域回来说,她研究的那个部落有语言,有语言,但他们没有私有财产,也没有政府,这是说得通的;可如果她回来说,他们有私有财产、政府、婚姻和货币,但他们没有语言,我们就知道那不可能是对的,因为
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39:23
know that couldn't be right because language is the fundamental human institution in that all others presuppose language but then now there's an interesting asymmetry i originally got this idea of the constitutive rule x counts as y as a way of describing the operation of language as the performance of the speech act uttering the sentence snow is white in english counts as making the statement that snow is white but now it turns out there's a big asymmetry between the operation of the constitutive rules with language and their operation with so to speak non-linguistic institutional facts like money and private property the asymmetry is this in the case of the status functions and the deonic powers that are non-linguistic for example when we make somebody president of the united states we use language to create power that goes beyond the power of language so we use language to say uh by the authority vested in my i hereby pronounce you president of the united states the guy then has powers that go beyond the
语言是最根本的人类制度,所有其他制度都以语言为前提。但现在有一个有趣的不对称之处。我最初提出「X 在 C 中算作 Y」这条构成性规则的想法,是作为描述语言运作、描述言语行为之施行的一种方式:在英语中说出「雪是白的」这个句子,算作做出「雪是白的」这个陈述。但现在结果表明,构成性规则在语言中的运作,和它在所谓非语言的制度性事实(比如货币和私有财产)中的运作之间,有一个很大的不对称。这个不对称是这样的:在地位功能的情形中……那些非语言性的道义权力,比如当我们让某人当上美国总统时,我们用语言创造出的权力超越了语言本身的权力。所以我们用语言说:以授予我的权力,我在此宣布你为美国总统。这个人随后就拥有了超越语言权力的权力。但当我们只是用一个句子作出
便签引用
40:36
powers of language but when we just use a sentence to make a statement there are no powers that go beyond the powers of language so the way as a speaker of english my knowledge of english enables me to have the power to make the statement that snow is white by uttering the sentence snow is white that's a case where the semantics is all the power there is the powers are just the semantic powers but when you make somebody chairman of the philosophy department or you admit them to graduate school or you award somebody a prize or you pronounce somebody husband and wife or you borrow money from the bank or you buy a house uh in bloomington all of those are cases where you create institutional facts and thus create deontic powers and you use language to do that but the powers that you create go beyond semantic powers so all of of barack obama's powers derive from semantics he has to be created as president and and treated as president represented as president but the powers go beyond semantics the power
陈述时,就不存在超越语言权力的权力。所以作为一个说英语的人,我对英语的掌握使我有能力通过说出“雪是白的”这个句子来作出“雪是白的”这一陈述,在这种情况下,语义就是全部的权力所在,这些权力只是语义权力。但当你让某人当上哲学系主任,或者你录取某人读研究生,或者你授予某人奖项,或者你宣布某两人结为夫妻,或者你从银行借钱,或者你在布卢明顿买一套房子,所有这些都是你创造了制度性事实、从而创造了道义权力的情形,而你是用语言来做这件事的。但你所创造的权力超越了语义权力。所以巴拉克·奥巴马的所有权力都源于语义——他必须被创造为总统、被当作总统对待、被表征为总统——但这些权力超越了语义。指挥美国军队
便签引用
41:42
to command american troops in battle goes far beyond the semantics even though the initial origin of the power is on the basis of the semantics the semantics creates powers that are not semantic so it turns out that language is not only the fundamental human social institution the one that all others derive from all others depend on but it's fundamentally different in its operation because it just as far as the meanings of the sentences are concerned all you have when you know the language is the power to perform speech acts with those sentences but when you're locked into a system of institutional facts and status functions and deionic powers when you're buying and selling stocks on the stock market or you're passing legislation in congress or you're uh a judge adjudicating cases all of those cases involve the use of language but they use language to create powers that go beyond language okay how am i doing for time well maybe i'll try and summarize so we'll have plenty of time for discussion now there are a few things i
作战的权力远远超出了语义,尽管这权力最初的源头是建立在语义的基础上。语义创造出并非语义的权力。所以结果是,语言不仅是人类最根本的社会制度、是其他一切制度由之派生、由之依赖的制度,而且它在运作方式上也根本不同。因为仅就句子的意义而言,当你掌握了一门语言,你所拥有的就只是用这些句子实施言语行为的能力。但当你被嵌入一个由制度性事实、地位功能和道义权力构成的体系中时,当你在股票市场买卖股票,或者在国会通过立法,或者你是一名审理案件的法官,所有这些情形都涉及语言的使用,但它们是用语言去创造超越语言的权力。好,我时间掌握得怎么样?也许我该试着总结一下,这样我们就有充足的时间讨论。现在在我把时间交给大家讨论之前,
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11独立宣言、人权与词汇之争
42:49
want to say of a theoretical kind before i throw it open for discussion one is it seems to me if you think along these lines as i'm suggesting you get a different conception of many traditional questions in the social science in the social sciences and in political philosophy if you look at our tradition in political and social theory there is a an endemic flaw that goes back to the greeks and that is roughly speaking they had an impoverished theory of language they took language for granted the social contract theorists are the worst because they assume that we're running around the woods speaking a language and then some genius says let's make a social contract and then you get together and have a society but what the implication what i'm saying is if you've got a language you've already got an implicit social contract because you have the possibility of creating a status functions now how do we get away with it you see what's amazing uh is we get away with it and the short answer to that is you get away with it
有几点理论性的东西我想说。一是在我看来,如果你按照我所建议的这种思路去思考,你会对社会科学和政治哲学中的许多传统问题得到一种不同的理解。如果你看看我们在政治和社会理论中的传统,会发现有一个根深蒂固的缺陷,一直可以追溯到希腊人,那就是粗略地说,他们有一套贫乏的语言理论。他们把语言视为理所当然。社会契约论者是最糟糕的,因为他们假定我们在树林里到处跑、说着一种语言,然后某个天才说:我们来订立一个社会契约吧,于是你们聚到一起,组成了社会。但我所说的意涵是,如果你已经有了语言,你就已经有了一个隐含的社会契约,因为你已经具备了创造地位功能的可能性。那么我们是怎么蒙混过关的呢?你看,令人惊叹的是我们确实蒙混过关了,简短的回答是:只要人们接受它,你就能蒙混过关。而通过宣告创造地位功能最惊人的例子,
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44:06
if people accept it and the most amazing creation of a status function by declaration were by guys who wrote as if they had read my book they used the very terminology they call it the declaration of independence now now there's nothing you see there's nothing in their status functions prior to that moment that gives them the power to do this these are let us not forget british subjects they're not citizens of anything they're s they're subjects of king george the third where in a british crown colony philadelphia it's a crown colony it's a got a status function it's entirely under the government of the of the uh uh of the royal family in london and they just got together and performed a collective speech act they said we uh declare ourselves to be an independent nation now they got away with it how did they get away with it well the short answer is they got people to accept it and we're here because people accept it and we accept it uh the long answer is they had to fight a war to get the
是由那些写起来仿佛读过我的书的人做出的——他们用的正是这个术语,他们称之为《独立宣言》。现在,你看,在那一刻之前,他们的地位功能中没有任何东西赋予他们这么做的权力。别忘了,这些人是英国臣民,他们不是任何国家的公民,他们是乔治三世国王的臣民,身处英国的一个皇家殖民地——费城,那是个皇家殖民地,它有一个地位功能,它完全处于伦敦王室政府的管辖之下。而他们就这么聚到一起,实施了一个集体言语行为,他们说:我们宣布自己是一个独立的国家。他们竟然蒙混过关了。他们是怎么做到的?简短的回答是,他们让人们接受了它。我们今天在这里,就是因为人们接受了它,我们也接受它。而详细的回答是,他们不得不打一场战争来赢得这种接受。而且直到康沃利斯在约克镇战败,他们才真正
便签引用
45:17
acceptance uh and it wasn't really until cornwallis was defeated at yorktown that they were free and clear and by the way something americans tend to forget we couldn't have won the war without the help of the french the french were essential in the creation of our uh of our country uh uh so remember that when the french complain about us and we complain about them which is a common domestic conversation uh so here are these guys who created an institutional reality of enormous power however it doesn't always work a bunch of people i guess in richmond tried to do the same stunt you know they had a good model they created the confederate states of america and it didn't work they did not again it took a war to settle the issue but the issue was settled but the remarkable thing is uh that your life is entirely structured within a series of complex families of status functions they're all created by the same simple logical linguistic operation applied over and over the status function declaration see we're not smart enough
摆脱了束缚。顺便说一句,有件事美国人往往会忘记:没有法国人的帮助,我们打不赢那场战争。法国人在我们国家的创建过程中是不可或缺的。所以当法国人抱怨我们、我们抱怨他们的时候——这在国内是很常见的话题——记住这一点。所以这些人创造了一个具有巨大权力的制度性实在。然而这并不总是奏效。我想是在里士满,有一群人试图玩同样的把戏,你知道,他们有一个很好的样板,他们创建了美利坚邦联国,但没有成功。他们没有成功——同样,那也是靠一场战争来解决问题的,但问题确实得到了解决。不过值得注意的是,你的生活完全是被一系列复杂的地位功能家族所建构起来的。它们全都是由同一个简单的逻辑—语言操作反复运用而创造出来的,那就是地位功能宣告。你看,我们没有聪明到每次都能搞出点新鲜
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46:30
to do something new and original every time we we have this device for creating status functions it's the status function declaration and we apply it over and over now i think as i said a lot of traditional issues are clarified if you adopt the approach that's implicit in what i've been saying let me conclude with one thought there are a huge debates that go on in this country and internationally about human rights about universal human rights uh and uh the question is what is the ontology of the human rights and there are a class of philosophers who are very skeptical like jeremy bentham and aleister mcintyre they think talk of human rights is nonsense what are you talking about but i think in fact the talk can be made legitimate once you recognize what's actually going on you don't have human rights the way you have thumbs the human right is a status function what's different about human rights and other rights is that other rights typically arise within a pre-existing institution as a citizen
独创的东西来。我们有这么一个创造地位功能的装置,它就是地位功能宣告,我们把它一遍又一遍地用下去。现在,正如我所说的,我认为如果你采纳我一直在讲的这套隐含的进路,许多传统问题就能得到澄清。让我以一个想法作结。在这个国家以及国际上,有关于人权、关于普遍人权的巨大争论。问题在于,人权的本体论地位是什么?有一类哲学家对此非常怀疑,比如杰里米·边沁和阿拉斯代尔·麦金太尔,他们认为谈论人权是无稽之谈——你到底在说什么?但我认为,事实上,一旦你认识到实际发生的是什么,这种谈论是可以变得合理的。你拥有人权的方式跟你拥有拇指的方式不一样。人权是一种地位功能。人权与其他权利的不同之处在于,其他权利通常是在一个已有的制度之内产生的:作为公民我有某些权利,作为丈夫我
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47:42
i have certain rights as a husband i have certain rights as a professor i have certain rights but somebody in the 18th century i don't know who it was or maybe it was 17th century but it's in the enlightenment somebody or some group of people got an idea of genius just being a human being is a why status function they didn't have the right terminology for saying that but but that's what they were trying to say just being a human being is a wise status function and as such it carries deontic powers it carries universal human rights and i think that can be made intellectually legitimate right you recognize that status that human rights are universal status functions are created and maintained by a certain type of speech act and that speech act is the status function declaration now another claim i haven't really had time to develop is that the institutional facts are not only created in their initial form by the status function declaration but that's how they maintained over a period of time you maintain
有某些权利,作为教授我有某些权利。但18世纪有个人——我不知道是谁,或者可能是17世纪,但总之是在启蒙时期——某个人或某群人产生了一个天才的想法:仅仅作为一个人本身就是一种地位功能。他们当时没有恰当的术语来表达这一点,但那正是他们想说的:仅仅作为一个人本身就是一种地位功能,而作为这样一种地位,它承载着道义权力,它承载着普遍人权。我认为这在智识上是可以站得住脚的。对,你要认识到那种地位——人权是普遍的地位功能,是由某种类型的言语行为创造并维持的,而那种言语行为就是地位功能宣告。还有另一个主张我实在没时间展开,那就是:制度性事实不仅其最初形式是由地位功能宣告创造的,而且它们也正是这样在一段时间内得以维持的。你是通过不断地把这个体系表征为它所是的那种权力结构,
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48:51
the system in power by constantly representing it as the power structure that it is so one of the ways to see this is to see that way that revolutionary movements want to change the vocabulary at the time of the russian revolution the revolutionaries were very anxious that people not use the traditional forms of address of traditional russia they wanted everybody to be called comrade why because that marked an equality of status function which calling somebody a lord or a duke or whatever would not accept so they were insistent on changing the vocabulary and more recently uh the feminists in the early days of feminism were anxious that we not use the traditional vocabulary of ladies and gentlemen because that marked status functions that they were anxious to overcome now i don't know how these things develop it's quite interesting if you and somebody in moscow today i think if you address him as comrade it'll be a joke i mean because the system that was created that has become undermined
来维持它的权力的。看清这一点的方式之一,是去看革命运动想要改变词汇的那种做法。在俄国革命时期,革命者非常急切地希望人们不要使用传统俄国的传统称谓形式,他们希望每个人都被称作“同志”。为什么?因为这标志着一种地位功能上的平等,而称某人为勋爵或公爵之类则不会认可这种平等。所以他们坚持要改变词汇。更近一些,在女权主义早期,女权主义者急切地希望我们不要使用“女士们、先生们”这样的传统词汇,因为那标志着她们急于克服的地位功能。现在我不知道这些事情会怎么发展,这挺有意思的:如果你今天在莫斯科称呼某人为“同志”,我想那会变成一个笑话。我是说,因为那个被创造出来的体系已经被瓦解了。但即便在此刻,这种变化也正在发生。如果你看看美国较老的法律,“老处女”(spinster)这个词
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50:02
but even this is going on as we speak if you look at older american laws the word spinster occurs commonly now i once asked my class how many of you are spinsters please raise your hand one middle-aged woman had a courage to raise her hand i wanted to give her an a on the spot because this is a a term that is becoming obsolete it did mark a status function and i think bachelor may be coming obsolete what with a change in in what with hesitation i call marital practices uh but with a relation of the sexes we may be going for all sorts of new vocabularies but the vocabulary is crucial because the vocabulary is the articulation of the assignment of a status function so i think that i have only really begun a a subject but what i want to suggest and i'll conclude with this is that when i use this somewhat uh provocative title the logical structure of human civilization unfortunately most people think i i mean logical as opposed to illogical that's not the point the point is that it has a propositional structure
经常出现。有一次我问我的班上:你们当中有多少人是spinster?请举手。有一位中年女士有勇气举起了手,我当时就想给她一个A,因为这是一个正在变得过时的词。它确实标志着一种地位功能。而且我认为“单身汉”(bachelor)可能也正在变得过时,鉴于我姑且迟疑地称之为“婚姻习俗”的那种变化,以及两性关系的变化,我们可能会迎来各种各样的新词汇。但词汇是至关重要的,因为词汇是地位功能赋予的外在表达。所以我觉得我其实只是开了个头,但我想说的、也是我要以此作结的是:当我用“人类文明的逻辑结构”这个多少有点挑衅意味的标题时,遗憾的是大多数人以为我说的“逻辑”是相对于“不合逻辑”而言的——那不是重点。重点在于它具有一种命题结构。这个命题结构就是
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51:16
the propositional structure is the assignment of a status function according to the the speech act of declaration that makes something the case by representing it as being the case and wherever you have propositional structures you have logical relations that's why i call it the logical structure of human civilization but this i think is how we differ from other social animals there are lots of social animals lots of them have power structures and hierarchies where they're alpha males and alpha females but they do not have this remarkably rich stable system of status functions that we have i visited mike tomasello at his primate lab in leipzig and he's got all these primates that are busy fighting it out every day who's going to be the alpha male today and the alpha male has to find allies among other males to fight off other alpha males now that's not how it works in the white house barack obama does not get up and think today i gotta beat everybody in arm wrestling or whatever it might be no
依据宣告这种言语行为对地位功能的赋予,而宣告这种言语行为通过把某事表征为事实,从而使它成为事实。而凡是有命题结构的地方,就有逻辑关系,这就是我为什么称之为人类文明的逻辑结构。而我认为,这正是我们区别于其他社会性动物之处。社会性动物有很多,其中许多也有权力结构和等级制度,有阿尔法雄性和阿尔法雌性,但它们没有我们所拥有的这种异常丰富、稳定的地位功能体系。我到莱比锡去参观过迈克·托马塞洛的灵长类实验室,他那里有一群灵长类动物,每天都在忙着打斗:今天谁来当阿尔法雄性?而阿尔法雄性还得在其他雄性中找盟友,以击退别的阿尔法雄性。而白宫可不是这么运作的。巴拉克·奥巴马不会早上起来心想:今天我得在掰手腕或者别的什么上把所有人都打败。不,他有一套被接受的地位功能体系,而且这套体系会持续存在下去。
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52:21
he's got an accepted system of status functions and that persists through time and this is a feature both of good institutions and bad institutions but i'm convinced that it is that key to understanding the ontology of human civilization thank you
这既是好制度的特征,也是坏制度的特征。但我确信,这正是理解人类文明本体论的关键。谢谢大家。
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12问答:驾照、崩溃与制度好坏
52:51
[Applause] questions okay guy on the left
(掌声)有问题吗?好,左边那位。
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53:09
questions i didn't give you a lecture on speech as questions are species of directive every question is a request it's a request for an answer i and indeed there's a remarkable thing about questions in english that the form of the question determines the form of the answer so if if i answer do you have any bananas and you say yes that doesn't mean yes it's going to rain tomorrow it means yes we have bananas and and they the one exception to this is the peculiar english modal auxiliary verbs so if i ask you shall i marry a republican the correct answer is not yes you shall or or no you sh shall not but rather yes do or no don't it asks for advice but that modal auxiliaries are hard to think about anyway but go ahead questions are directives yes that sort of was my question oh okay yeah okay all right well well i was trying to think in the in the sense of anything from satisfying curiosity to questioning authority like who do you think you are what do you think you're doing okay now i i resist
提问——我没有给大家讲言语行为的课。问题是指令类言语行为的一种,每一个问题都是一个请求,它是一个要求得到回答的请求。而且英语中关于问题确实有个很值得注意的现象:问题的形式决定了回答的形式。所以如果我问“你们有香蕉吗”,你说“有”,那并不意味着“是的,明天会下雨”,它意味着“是的,我们有香蕉”。而唯一的例外是英语中那些特别的情态助动词。所以如果我问你“我该娶一个共和党人吗?(shall I marry a Republican)”,正确的回答不是“是的你该(yes you shall)”或者“不,你不该”,而是“是的,去娶吧”或者“不,别娶”。它是在征求建议,但情态助动词本来就不太好琢磨。不过请讲吧——问题是指令类言语行为。是的,我的问题差不多就是这个。哦,好的,好。嗯,我当时是想从这个意义上思考:从满足好奇心到质疑权威,比如“你以为你是谁”“你以为你在干什么”。好,现在我要忍住不去大讲一通——问题是个
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54:18
the temptation of electron questions our fascinating subject and one interesting class are rhetorical questions uh when the guy in the republican national convention says do we want four more years of incompetent government he doesn't want people to think about it oh i don't know do we or don't we i guess we do uh no it's not the form of the question so rhetorical questions are interesting in that the rhetorical question makes a statement by assuming that the answer the question is known it's as soon as the answer is known uh consequently you use the rhetorical question to make a statement so questions are fascinating a lot to be said but in any case the short answer is real honest and john questions like how do i find my way to bloomington that is a direct directive where you're asking for information yes oh no yeah let's go over here first and then we'll come back to you yeah i want to i agree with most of what you say but i want to draw watch out when somebody says that because he's now
非常迷人的话题,其中有一类很有意思的是反问句。当共和党全国代表大会上那个人说:“我们还想再要四年无能的政府吗?”他并不希望人们去认真琢磨——哦,我不知道,我们想还是不想呢?我想我们大概是想的吧。不,那不是这个问题的形式。所以反问句之所以有意思,在于反问句是通过假定答案已知来作出一个陈述的。既然答案是已知的,因此你就用反问句来作出一个陈述。所以问题是很迷人的,可说的很多。但无论如何,简短的答案是:真正诚实的普通问题,比如“我怎么才能走到布卢明顿?”那是一种指令,你在请求信息。好的。哦不,我们先到这边来,然后再回到你那儿。是的,我——我同意你说的大部分内容,但我想提请——当有人这么说的时候你要当心,因为他接下来就要告诉我们他不同意什么了——我想提请大家注意一个重要的
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55:21
going to tell us what he disagrees with i want to draw attention to an important fact namely you for example have a california driving license yeah now suppose i were visiting california i didn't bring my driver's license you couldn't say roy that's all right just take mine yeah on the other hand i have also a lunch coupon for lunch tomorrow yeah i could give that coupon to somebody else yeah and that person could eat lunch instead of me so it's important that the driver's license is unique to you yeah and when a policeman stops you he wants to know that it's john and not week whereas on the other hand when it comes to comes to lunch it doesn't matter who is eating the lunch because they want to make sure that the number of coupons equals the number of people who paid yes no there are some important properties about these certificates of power no that's that's absolutely right and i'm grateful for the contribution i want to say a little bit more about it many status function attached to
事实,就是说,比如你有一张加州驾照。对。那么假设我到加州来访,我没带我的驾照,你不能说:罗伊,没关系,用我的就行。对。另一方面,我还有一张明天午餐的餐券。对。我可以把那张餐券给别人,那个人就可以代替我去吃午餐。所以重要的是,驾照是专属于你的。对。警察拦下你的时候,他想知道这人是约翰而不是别人。而另一方面,说到午餐,谁来吃这顿午餐并不要紧,因为他们只是要确保券的数量等于付了钱的人数。是的。所以这些权力凭证有一些重要的性质。不,
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56:24
specific individuals named individuals so you're named in the driver's license or on the marriage license you can't prove you're married by borrowing my marriage license okay i mean uh it is specific the beauty of money is it's fungible anybody with the money can use it to buy something with but all sorts of other things are not in that way exchangeable now there's another topic i didn't have a chance to go into but i want to use this occasion to mention it and that is that often we need indicators you need status function indicators so the policeman wears a uniform and the actual license that i have is not the status function it's an indicator that i'm able to drive it's a state what i call a status function indicator and these wedding rings uniforms driver's licenses all of these are status function indicators and their primary function is epistemic they prove that i have the status that i claim to have now they can acquire kind of life of their own so the driver's license in california is
这完全正确,我很感谢你的补充。我想再多说几句。许多地位功能是附着在特定的、有名有姓的个人身上的。所以驾照上写着你的名字,结婚证上也是。你不能通过借用我的结婚证来证明你已婚。好吧,我是说,它是特定的。货币的妙处在于它是可替换的,任何有钱的人都可以用它来买东西。但其他各种各样的东西并不是以那种方式可交换的。现在还有另一个话题,我没机会展开,但我想借这个机会提一下,那就是我们常常需要标识物——你需要地位功能标识物。所以警察穿制服,而我手里那张实际的执照并不是地位功能本身,它是我有能力开车的一个标识,它是一个我称之为地位功能标识物的东西。这些结婚戒指、制服、驾照,所有这些都是地位功能标识物,它们的首要功能是认识论上的:它们证明我拥有我所声称的地位。当然,它们也可能
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57:32
used for all kinds of things that have nothing to do with driving you can't buy a beer if you haven't got a driver's license because you can't prove that you're over 21. i and so they they sometimes the status uh indicators will acquire a kind of separate life of their own but the basic idea is that for many status functions you use you need to indicate that you have the status function by some epistemic device when i first got to berkeley you could tell who the professors were they were the guys with ties on uh ties and jackets then in the 60s you could tell the professors they were the ones with shoes on because dressing habits had changed by then um so you get these and part of the problem in my old university oxford is when i was a student there you could identify who was a member of the university buy their clothing they wore well the kind of stuff i got on roughly speaking they had on worsted flannel slacks and usually tweed jackets this wouldn't qualify but in any case they there was no question about
获得某种自己的生命。所以在加州,驾照被用于各种各样跟开车毫无关系的事情。如果你没有驾照你就买不了啤酒,因为你无法证明自己已经21岁了。所以有时候这些地位标识物会获得某种独立于自身的生命,但基本的想法是:对许多地位功能来说,你需要通过某种认识论上的装置来表明你拥有这个地位功能。可以告诉教授们,他们才是穿鞋的那批人,因为那时候着装习惯已经变了。所以你会碰到这些情况,而问题的一部分在于,我以前念书的牛津,我还是学生的时候,你能一眼认出谁是这所大学的成员,看他们穿的衣服就行。他们穿的差不多就是我身上这类东西——精纺法兰绒长裤,通常还配一件粗花呢外套。我这身大概还不够格,但不管怎么说,当时根本不存在不相干的人溜进大学里的问题,他们会立刻
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58:39
improper people wandering in the university they would be immediately identified by their style of dress now everybody wears blue jeans they imitate the americans so you can't do that anymore and people have now started locking their doors you have to lock your door in auction the way you didn't used to because it was all members of the upper class and they were readily identifiable by their address okay did you finish yeah i'm sorry thanks for the question okay you're on in the beginning of your talk you talked about physical particles like protons and electrons but you haven't said a word about how you get from protons and electrons to human beings or to civilization okay let me answer that question unfortunately i only had two lectures to give here one was about consciousness so let me give you the short answer to begin with i'm i'm not sure they're particles maybe um points of mass energy or strings but that's not what i'm paying the physicist to do to settle on the basic the ontology of the basic entities okay
被他们的穿衣风格认出来。而现在人人都穿牛仔裤,模仿美国人,所以你没法再那样做了。现在大家也开始锁门了,你在牛津不得不锁门,以前可不用,因为当时全都是上层阶级的成员,看他们的穿着就能轻易认出来。好了,你问完了吗?好的,不好意思谢谢你的提问。好,到你了。你在演讲一开始谈到了物理粒子,比如质子和电子,但你一个字也没说,怎么从质子和电子走到人类、走到文明。好的,让我来回答这个问题。可惜我在这儿只有两场讲座,一场是讲意识的,那我就给个简短的回答吧。首先,我不确定它们是不是粒子,也许是质能的点,或者是弦,但那不是我付钱请物理学家去做的事——由他们去确定基本实体的本体论。好,这些东西被组织进各种系统。在我们这颗小小的地球上,
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59:43
those are organized in the systems now on our little earth some of those particles are organized into large molecules containing lots of carbon with hydrogen nitrogen and oxygen and some of those systems of carbon-based molecules became alive now to this day we don't know when and how and where that happened but it did happen it's an amazing fact and some of those living organic systems some of those living organic systems continue to evolve and they were now talking about millions of years continue to evolve until they became animals and some animals evolved consciousness and now that's what i talked about last time is how the brain creates consciousness uh and we still don't understand that we don't know how exactly the brain creates consciousness or how exactly it functions in the brain but we know that it does now this lecture was the next step where once you've got length once you've got consciousness then you can get language and i didn't discuss the structures of language i just talked about some of the uses and
其中一些粒子被组织成了大分子,含有大量的碳,还有氢、氮和氧。而其中一些碳基分子组成的系统活了起来。直到今天我们也不知道那是何时、如何、在哪里发生的,但它确实发生了。这是个惊人的事实。而其中一些有生命的有机系统,其中一些有生命的有机系统继续演化,我们现在说的是几百万年,继续演化,直到它们成了动物,而有些动物演化出了意识。上次我讲的就是这个——大脑如何产生意识。我们至今仍不理解这一点,我们不知道大脑究竟是如何产生意识的,也不知道它在大脑中究竟如何运作,但我们知道它确实如此。而这场讲座是下一步,一旦你有了……一旦你有了意识,你就能有语言。我没有讨论语言的结构,我只谈了它的一些用途。而一旦你有了语言,你就有了创造社会的可能——人类
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1:00:59
now once you have language you have the possibility of creating society human society and human civilization so the pattern goes from the basic physical reality of physical particles to the beginnings of life in carbon-based molecules and then the developmental of life through evolution and then the development of evolutionary mechanisms through the development of animals and conscious animals and then the development of language and then us and then all the stuff we got that's the picture i should spell that out but that's how you get from protons to presidents you get from having the basic system of the physical particles some of those become alive a stunning fact i and some of those living systems evolve over long periods of evolutionary time and then over that long period of time you eventually reach folks like us now we ought not to be arrogant about our special situation as i mentioned before we are a very small solar system in a big galaxy and there are a hundred billion stars in our galaxy
社会和人类文明。所以这个脉络是:从物理粒子这个基本的物理实在,到生命在碳基分子中的起源,然后是生命通过演化的发展,然后是演化机制通过动物、有意识的动物的发展而发展,然后是语言的发展,然后就是我们,然后是我们拥有的这一切。这就是那幅图景。我应该把它讲明白,不过这就是你如何从质子走到总统的。你从拥有物理粒子这个基本系统开始,其中一些活了起来——一个令人震撼的事实——而其中一些有生命的系统在漫长的演化时间里不断演化,然后在那段漫长的时间之后,你最终得到了我们这样的家伙。我们不该为自己这种特殊处境自大。就像我之前提到的,我们只是一个大星系里一个很小的太阳系。我们的星系里有一千亿颗恒星,我不知道其中有多少能支撑生命,或者有多少
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1:02:17
i don't know how many of them can support life or or planets like as ours do but uh our galaxy with its 100 billion stars it's one of a hundred billion galaxies so it seems to me unlikely that we're the only uh conscious beasts in the universe i don't suppose that other beasts in the universe look like us why should they i mean we're uh freaks of a certain kind of evolution and if uh if they could see us no reason why they have the ability to see but if they can see us we probably look as freakish to them as they do to us so we can't assume that we're the only possible reasonable way for life to come about but it's what we got it's what we have to live with now that's the good news there are only 100 billion uh stars in our galaxy and only 100 billion galaxies i've been telling my students this for years here's the bad news i only discovered this my physics fans frequently the story i told you only covers four percent of the universe oh yeah what about the other 96 percent i paid to hear about that
行星像我们这样。不过我们这个有一千亿颗恒星的星系,只是一千亿个星系中的一个。所以在我看来我们不太可能是宇宙中唯一有意识的生物。我不认为宇宙中其他生物长得像我们,凭什么呢?我是说,我们是某种特定演化路径的怪胎。如果他们能看见我们——没理由认为他们一定有视觉能力——但如果他们能看见我们,我们在他们眼里大概和他们在我们眼里一样古怪。所以我们不能假定我们是生命产生的唯一合理方式。但这就是我们所拥有的,我们就得这么过。好,这是好消息:我们星系里不过一千亿颗恒星,宇宙里不过一千亿个星系。这些话我跟学生讲了很多年。而坏消息是,我最近才从我那些物理学爱好者朋友那儿知道:我刚才讲的这个故事,只覆盖了宇宙的百分之四。哦是吗,那另外百分之九十六呢?我可是花钱来听这个的。嗯,另外那百分之九十六是暗物质和暗能量。而所谓的“暗”,是认识论意义上的
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1:03:27
well the other 96 is dark matter and dark energy and what's dark about it is epistemic darkness that damn physicists haven't figured it out they they have pretty good reasons for believing in it i mean here's the thing they say that always drives me crazy the universe is expanding what's it expanding in you know if i say we've decided to expand the kitchen okay well then it's got to expand into the backyard but if we say oh and by the way we're going to expand the kitchen and expand the universe what do i expand the universe in well there is an answer to that but it they've been misleading us and the answer is to say the universe is expanding is to say the galaxies are getting farther apart and they are what's the force that's driving them farther apart well there's dark energy as well as a dark matter so we're i mean we really are very ignorant of the most of all some of the most fundamental facts about the nature of ourselves and the nature of the universe we really don't know much about how the universe works and in a
黑暗——那帮该死的物理学家还没搞明白。他们有相当不错的理由相信它存在。我是说,他们有句话总让我抓狂:宇宙在膨胀。它往什么里面膨胀?你想想,如果我说我们决定扩建厨房,那好,它总得往后院扩。但如果我们说,哦对了,我们要扩建厨房,还要扩展宇宙——我把宇宙扩展到什么里面去?其实这是有答案的,只是他们一直在误导我们。答案是:说宇宙在膨胀,就是说各个星系在彼此远离。而它们确实如此。那么是什么力在推着它们越离越远?嗯,有暗能量,还有暗物质。所以我们——我是说,我们对关于我们自身的本性和宇宙的本性的一些最根本的事实,真的非常无知。我们真的不太了解宇宙是怎么运作的。而在某种
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1:04:40
way worse yet we don't know much about how we work we don't know how our brain creates consciousness uh we don't know how life began we do know that it did begin and it did evolve and we have some conception of those mechanisms but we're still ignorant of a whole lot of areas well that's what makes philosophy fun is we've got a lot to work on okay who's next i think you're you this guy's next okay you're on uh you've you've been talking about some of the implications of of the performative for social power and even social change the subtitle of jared diamond's book collapse is how societies choose to succeed or fail uh would you give us some hints about how we might avoid catastrophic collapse and whether whether uh exactly whether whether there might be any in can any performative incantation that would help in that task well that's what i love easy questions uh you know i don't have a general theory of society or social uh collapse uh so i really i'm the wrong guy to ask this question of i've
意义上更糟的是,我们不太了解我们自己是怎么运作的。我们不知道大脑如何产生意识,我们不知道生命是如何开始的。我们确实知道它开始了,也演化了,我们对那些机制有一些概念,但我们在一大堆领域里仍然无知。不过这正是哲学有意思的地方——我们有一大堆活儿可干。好,下一位是谁?我想是你,这位先生是下一个。好,到你了。你一直在谈论施为句对社会权力乃至社会变革的一些意涵。贾雷德·戴蒙德那本《崩溃》的副标题是“社会如何选择成败兴亡”。你能不能给我们一些提示,我们该如何避免灾难性的崩溃,以及是否确切地说,是否存在某种施为性的“咒语”能在这件事上帮上忙?嗯,我就喜欢这种简单问题。你知道,我并没有一套关于社会或社会崩溃的一般理论,所以我真的不是该问这个问题的人。如果我能给出一个关于社会本体论、关于其存在方式的好的刻画,
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1:05:55
if if i got a a good characterization of social ontology the mode of existence uh then i i you i can go on from there but i haven't gone on from there the question would be well what makes a good institution is a bad institution and there it seems to me you have to ask questions about well what constitutes human flourishing and what sorts of healthy societies will facilitate human flourishing and it seems to me there are lots of them in the world today that are not very healthy but americans love to criticize themselves i think we're pretty well off compared with let's say what's happening in syria i'm sure there are lots of joys to be had in syria but right now i'd rather be in indiana and a whole lot of other areas of the world that that's true so i don't have an answer to your question but what i provide i hope is a framework for for an ontology for posing the questions okay you're on oh okay this one's a doozy all right um and it's been bothering me for a while um what what the hell is an institution and
那我就能从那里继续往下走,但我并没有往下走。接下来的问题会是:什么造就了一个好的制度、一个坏的制度?在这一点上我觉得你得追问:什么构成人的繁荣兴盛?什么样的健康社会能促进人的繁荣兴盛?在我看来,今天世界上有很多社会都不太健康。不过美国人特别爱自我批评,我觉得我们过得相当不错,比方说比起叙利亚正在发生的事情。我相信在叙利亚也有不少乐趣可寻,但眼下我宁愿待在印第安纳。世界上还有一大堆其他地方也是如此。所以我回答不了你的问题,但我希望能提供的,是一个框架,一个用来提出这些问题的本体论。好,到你了。哦,好,这个问题可真够呛。好吧,嗯,这个问题困扰我有一阵子了。制度到底是个什么鬼东西?社会又到底是个什么鬼东西?我是说,制度更
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1:07:00
what the hell is a society i mean you the institution is more important because you've been using the word a lot an institution what is that yeah as i've told you an institution is a system of constitutive rules within those systems of constitutive rules you create institutional facts all institutional facts are created by the application of a same type of speech act or the same type of linguistic representation a status function declaration now there are immediate objections to that because some of the things we think of as institutions are not institutional facts on my account so the christian calendar is not an institution because uh being such and such a date doesn't carry a deontology the test is does it carry a deontology christmas day is an institutional fact because it care i have obligations and rights on christmas day uh i have i am obligated to give my children presents and i have a right to a day off that marks it as an institutional fact that's a status function so there are tests for status functions
重要,因为你这个词用得特别多。制度,那是什么?是的,正如我跟你们说过的,制度是一套构成性规则。在这些构成性规则系统之内,你创造出制度性事实。所有制度性事实都是通过运用同一类言语行为、或者说同一类语言表征而被创造出来的——地位功能宣告。现在有一些直接的反对意见,因为有些我们认为是制度的东西,按我的说法并不是制度性事实。比如基督教历法就不是一个制度,因为“是某某日期”这件事并不带有道义论内容。检验标准就是:它是否带有道义论内容?圣诞节是一个制度性事实,因为在圣诞节那天我有义务也有权利。我有义务给我的孩子们礼物,我也有权利放一天假。这就标志着它是一个制度性事实,那是一项地位功能。所以地位功能是有检验标准的:它是否带有道义论内容?简短的回答是:制度就是构成性规则
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1:08:06
does it carry deontology but the short answer is institutions are systems of constitutive rules uh they enable the creation of institutional facts by state dysfunction declarations status function declarations without exception create deontic powers and deonic powers are the glue that holds human civilization together because they give us reason for acting that are independent of our immediate inclinations okay that's the i mean that's a summary of the lecture yeah okay you brought this up towards the end concerning conflict yeah the degree to which uh declarations must be accepted on mass for them to have causative effect but then it seems that this propositional logical structure doesn't have very much prescriptive power most of the things you can prove from this logical structure are actually descriptive i look at my set of axioms which are the result of having already fought wars and then i draw the facts from there so my predecessor on this side asked for could you avert society simply by
的系统。它们使得通过地位功能宣告来创造制度性事实成为可能。地位功能宣告无一例外地创造出道义性权力,而道义性权力就是把人类文明黏合在一起的胶水,因为它们给了我们独立于当下欲望和倾向的行动理由。好,这就是——我是说,这是那场讲座的一个总结。好的。你在快结束时提到了冲突,是的,提到宣告必须被大规模接受才能产生因果效力。但这样看来,这套命题逻辑结构似乎没有多少规范性/指导性的力量。从这个逻辑结构里你能证明出来的大多数东西其实是描述性的。我看着我的那套公理,而它们是已经打完了仗之后的结果,然后我再从那里推出事实来。所以我这边前面那位提问者问的是,你能不能仅仅通过把社会描述为一个宣告的迭代过程来扭转/改变社会。但我有个更基本的问题:这套东西到底
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1:09:14
describing society as a iterative process of declarations but my have a more basic question does this actually give you any dis sorry prescriptive proof based power at all or do you throw it out there and then see who wins might makes right style yeah well okay that's a larger question than i'll really be able to answer but i would say there are lots of institutions that are so obviously uh useful to all of us that they really are not subject to challenge as institutions the most obvious is language if you think that private property is a bad idea okay you can argue against private property but how would you argue against language you'd have to use language to argue against language and i don't i mean it's just pretty hard to see language being challenged as an institution now some institutions are inherently evil slavery seems to me a slavery of human being seems to me inherently evil but then that's something you can argue for that's something you can within institutional structures you can
给了你任何——抱歉——任何规范性的、可用于论证的力量吗?还是说你把它抛出去,然后看谁赢——强权即公理那种?是的,嗯,好吧,这个问题比我真正能回答的要大,但我会说,有很多制度对我们所有人来说显然太有用了,以至于它们作为制度根本不会受到挑战。最明显的就是语言。如果你认为私有财产是个坏主意,行,你可以反对私有财产。但你怎么反对语言呢?你得用语言来反对语言。我是说,实在很难想象语言作为一种制度会受到挑战。当然,有些制度本质上是恶的。在我看来奴隶制,对人的奴役,在我看来本质上就是恶的。但那是你可以论证的东西,那是你可以在制度结构内部把它论证出来的东西。
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1:10:19
make that out there are some as i said institutions that are so obviously beneficial to everybody that it's very hard to see how anybody could argue against them and language is the most obvious case but there are others how about money money is an institution is it beneficial i think on balance it is it's famously the root of all evil but it's the root of an awful lot of good too i i try to imagine what your life would be like if you had no possibility of buying and selling or being paid or being paid for your work or anything like that it's very hard to imagine how you would organize a decent life so there are lots of institutions that are very pervasive that are effectively harmless now how about private property well i think private property again benefits just about everybody but we now have in the united states such a disproportionate concentration of private property and the famous one percent the wealth is so disproportionately concentrated that it seems to me very unhealthy it's
就像我说的,有些制度对每个人都显然有益,以至于很难想象有谁能反对它们,语言是最明显的例子,但还有别的。那金钱呢?金钱是一种制度,它有益吗?我认为总体而言是的。它有个著名的说法叫万恶之源,但它也是大量善的源头。我试着想象一下,如果你完全没有买卖的可能,没法拿到报酬,没法为你的工作获得报酬,诸如此类,你的生活会是什么样。很难想象你要怎么组织一种像样的生活。所以有很多非常普遍的制度实际上是无害的。那私有财产呢?我认为私有财产同样让几乎每个人都受益,但我们现在在美国有着如此不成比例的私有财产集中,就是那著名的百分之一,财富集中得如此不成比例,在我看来非常不健康。让如此多的权力、如此多的道义性权力
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1:11:25
just not a healthy way to run a society to have so much power so much deonic power in the hands of so few people for one thing it gives them a disproportionate amount of political power and these are real problems that we're going to have to face so i think if you want to ask about a given institution is this institution a good one or a bad one you have to tell me more about the institution and what it does how it functions in human life yeah i'd like to follow up on a question that was asked on this side a little earlier when you were asked to spell out a little bit more about the way that you get from molecules to presidents and so forth and what i'm going to ask you some people would object to the treatment of things like precedence and elections on the same ontological plane as molecules and particles i wonder if you could say a little bit more about the logic that allows from a material materialist conception of the world is reducible to material how things emerge from that and can exist in any way on a different
掌握在如此少的人手里,实在不是一种健康的治理社会的方式。首先,这给了他们不成比例的政治权力。这些都是我们将不得不面对的真问题。所以我认为,如果你想问某个特定的制度,这个制度是好的还是坏的,你得多告诉我一些关于这个制度的事,它做什么,它在人类生活中如何运作。是的,我想接着这边稍早提的那个问题追问一下,就是当有人请你更详细地阐述你如何从分子走到总统等等的时候。我要问的是,有些人会反对把总统、选举这类东西和分子、粒子放在同一个本体论平面上处理。我想知道你能否再多说一点那个逻辑——那个允许从一种唯物主义的世界观(世界可还原为物质)出发,让事物从中涌现出来,并以某种方式存在于一个不同
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1:12:23
level okay now that's a very good question one of the things i hope is some implicit in what i've said is that the traditional distinctions between the material and the mental or the material and the ideal i i think those are all obsolete i mean we live in one world it's basic structure is that of physical particles uh among the physical features of the world is consciousness but i mean real honest to john consciousness all with all its subjectivity touchy feely uh features and then organize systems of consciousness through collective intentionality create human civilization that's the story about how you get from the protons to the presidents uh of course there are several steps in that story we just don't understand we don't understand how life got started it did we don't understand how uh consciousness got started and we really don't understand how human languages took off and we may never really understand that because there's no fossil evidence you can't look at the fossils and see whether or not these
层面上的逻辑。好的,这是个非常好的问题。我希望我说过的话里隐含的一点是,物质与心灵、或者物质与观念之间那些传统的区分,我认为都已经过时了。我是说,我们生活在一个世界里,它的基本结构是物理粒子的结构。而在这个世界的物理特征之中就有意识——但我指的是真真正正、如假包换的意识,连同它所有的主观性、所有那些切身感受的特征。然后,通过集体意向性组织起来的意识系统创造了人类文明。这就是关于你如何从质子走到总统的故事。当然,这个故事里有好几个步骤我们并不理解。我们不理解生命是如何开始的——它确实开始了;我们不理解意识是如何开始的;我们也确实不理解人类语言是如何起飞的。而且我们可能永远都无法真正理解,因为没有化石证据。你没法看着化石就判断出这些家伙用的是主语—动词的语言,还是动词在前的语言。你没法看着
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1:13:26
guys had a subject a verb language or a language where the verb came first you can't look at that look at the skull and discover that so we may never have a full understanding of how these things develop but they did develop we did evolve from a universe in which the or a solar system at least in which there were no living beings we evolved into us i and we did evolve culturally into something that's far more complicated and far more interesting i think than a hunter-gatherer existence we're no longer just running around the woods trying to find enough food to get through the rest of the day any other questions i've answered every question yeah thank you
头骨就发现这一点。所以我们可能永远不会完整地理解这些东西是怎么发展出来的,但它们确实发展出来了。我们确实是从一个没有生命的宇宙——至少是一个没有生命的太阳系——演化而来的,我们演化成了我们。而且我们在文化上也确实演化成了某种远比狩猎采集的生存状态更复杂、在我看来也远更有趣的东西。我们不再只是在林子里到处跑,找够吃的东西熬过这一天。还有别的问题吗?我把每个问题都回答了。好的,谢谢。
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1:14:31
you
谢谢。
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视频总结 · 一句话概括与核心要点

一句话概括

塞尔用一套统一的语言学机制解释人类文明的本体论:从粒子到总统之间的桥梁是「地位功能宣告」——通过把某物表述为具有某种地位而使其真的具有该地位,由此创造出义务性权力,并把这一操作反复叠加、相互锁扣,就得到了货币、财产、政府、婚姻等全部制度实在。

核心要点

  • 问题是「一个世界」的调和问题:宇宙基本上是力场中的物理粒子,它们无心灵、无意义;但我们的生活充满意识、理性、语言、伦理、政治。塞尔拒绝「物理世界+精神世界」的二元论,要求证明人类实在是基础物理实在的自然结果——「有了质子就要得到总统,有了电子就要得到选举」,仅仅逻辑一致还不够。
  • 本体论主观 ≠ 认识论主观,这解开了开场悖论:制度实在(钱、公民身份、大学)全由人类主观意识创造,却是客观事实。原因在于领域的本体论主观性并不妨碍对它做出认识论上客观的陈述——「我是伯克利教授」「钱包里那张纸是二十美元」在制度建立之后就是可查证的客观事实。
  • 第一版理论:三样东西就能从蛮事实走到制度事实。①集体意向性(合作能力,人和许多动物都有);②给物体赋予功能的能力(笔能写字是靠物理结构);③关键发明——地位功能:功能不靠物理结构而靠集体接受某种地位来实现。五美元钞票和梳子的差别就在这里:前者的功能完全来自我们的态度。这些功能通过构成性规则「X 在情境 C 中算作 Y」被创造出来,与只规范既有行为的调节性规则(靠右行驶)不同——下棋本身就是按规则行事,美国宪法就是一套构成性规则。
  • 构成性规则有两个让它比看上去强大得多的形式性质。其一是无限向上迭代:发出声音算作英语句子→某些句子算作许诺→某些许诺算作合同→某类合同算作结婚,每一层 Y₁ 变成下一层 X₂;在加州一旦结婚,配偶福利、产假等一整套权利义务随之涌出。其二是相互锁扣:「我在伯克利电报大道美国银行账户里的钱由雇主加州大学校董存入,用来交州税联邦税和信用卡债」——这句话里除了街名,几乎每个名词都是一个地位功能,制度只有嵌入其他制度才能运转。
  • 两个反例逼出第二版理论:第一,往往不需要规则——一群孩子直接就能把某人当作垒球队长;第二,更麻烦的是有时连 X 项都没有。大多数货币根本没有物理存在,银行里只有磁盘上的磁性痕迹,那是货币的表征而非货币本身;借记卡交易只是把你账户里的数值换成别人账户里的数值。有限责任公司更极端:加州法律说「你通过提交公司章程来创建公司」,即通过宣告你在创建公司来创建公司,公司的办公楼不是公司,公司本身纯属抽象。
  • 语言分类:五种言语行为中「宣告」独具双向适配。按言语行为与实在的关系分:断言类(词适配世界,可判真假)、指令类(世界适配词,被服从或违抗)、承诺类(说话者承诺改变世界,被遵守或违背)、表达类(道歉、感谢,适配被默认)、以及宣告类——说某事成立就使其成立:「散会」「你被解雇了」「我宣布你们结为夫妻」。宣告用一个言语行为同时实现两个方向:通过把世界表述为某种样子(词→世界)来使世界变成那样(世界→词)。美钞上「本券为偿付一切公私债务之法定货币」看似事实陈述,实则没做过任何调查,是靠宣告把它变成法定货币。
  • 全场最强主张:一切制度实在都由具有宣告逻辑形式的表征创造。不必显式说「我们任命你为老板」,只要一贯把某人当作老板、称呼她为老板、表述她为老板,就能使她成为老板。塞尔由此把早先的地位功能理论收编进言语行为理论:所有地位功能都由「地位功能宣告」创造;「我们没聪明到每次都能干点新鲜原创的事」,人类只是把同一种言语行为反复应用。
  • 地位功能的目的是权力,而且是特殊的「义务性权力」:权利、义务、责任、授权、许可、要求。狗群有阿尔法雄性的等级,却不创造权利义务系统。义务性权力的要害在于它嵌入人类理性,提供独立于欲望的行动理由:塞尔举自己承诺去布卢明顿讲课为例——早起、安检脱鞋、难吃的飞机餐、和邻座抢扶手,没人为乐趣做这事,但许诺创造了一个制度事实,进而创造了不依赖倾向的理由。芝加哥的保守派经济学家坚称他来只是怕被人看低,他「没好意思说我根本不在乎你们怎么想」。
  • 语言是基础制度,且与其他制度存在关键不对称。有语言而无货币、财产、政府的社会说得通,反过来不可能——所有其他制度都预设语言。但不对称在于:用「白雪是白的」做陈述,全部权力就是语义权力;而宣誓奥巴马为总统,权力的起源是语义,产生的却是超越语义的权力(指挥美军作战)。这也暴露了从希腊到社会契约论者的通病——语言理论贫乏:他们设想人们先在林中说着话,再由某天才提议订约,殊不知有了语言就已经有了隐含的社会契约。
  • 接受是宣告生效的唯一条件,独立宣言是最佳案例:签署者是英王乔治三世的臣民,费城是王室殖民地,他们没有任何既有地位赋予其宣告独立的权力,却集体宣告并「得逞」了——短答案是人们接受了,长答案是打了一场仗,到康沃利斯在约克镇投降才算数(塞尔提醒美国人别忘了没有法国帮助赢不了)。里士满那伙人照同样模型建立邦联却失败了,同样由战争裁决。

结论与值得注意的细节

  • 「逻辑结构」指命题结构而非「合逻辑」:地位功能的赋予是一种命题性的言语行为,凡有命题结构处就有逻辑关系,这才是标题的含义。与灵长类实验室里每天靠打架和结盟争夺阿尔法地位的猩猩(塞尔在莱比锡拜访托马塞洛时所见)不同,白宫的权力是一套被接受的、随时间持续的地位功能系统——好制度和坏制度皆然。
  • 制度不仅由宣告创造,也靠持续表征来维持,因此革命运动总想改词汇:俄国革命者坚持人人互称「同志」以标记平等地位;早期女性主义者反对「女士们先生们」的称呼;如今在莫斯科叫人「同志」已成笑话,因为那套系统已被掏空。旧美国法律里常见的 spinster(老处女)一词正在过时——塞尔在课堂上问谁是 spinster,只有一位中年女士敢举手,「我当场就想给她 A」;bachelor 可能也在步其后尘。词汇至关重要,因为词汇就是地位功能赋予的表达形式。
  • 人权可以被说成是「普遍地位功能」:边沁和麦金泰尔认为人权之谈是胡说,但塞尔指出人权不是像拇指那样「长」出来的,而是启蒙时代某个天才想法——把「仅仅作为人」本身当作一种 Y 地位,由此携带义务性权力。与公民权、丈夫权、教授权不同,它不在既有制度内部产生。
  • 有些地位功能不宜法典化:鸡尾酒会、恋爱、友谊都携带义务(检验标准就是「是否带有道义论」),但你是在边走边发明其结构,法典化会让它僵死;跨国时对友谊、恋爱的不同理解会惹麻烦。相反,基督教历法不是制度事实,圣诞节却是——他有给孩子送礼物的义务和休假一天的权利。
  • 问答环节补充「地位功能指示物」概念:驾照、结婚戒指、警察制服本身不是地位功能,而是证明你拥有该地位的认识论装置。有些地位绑定具名个人(驾照、结婚证不能借用),有些则可互换(午餐券、货币的美妙就在于可替代)。指示物会长出自己的生命——加州买啤酒要出示驾照,只因它能证明你满 21 岁。牛津旧日靠着装识别大学成员,如今人人穿牛仔裤,于是开始锁门。
  • 从质子到总统的完整链条(回答质疑时给出):物理粒子→碳基大分子→生命(何时何地如何发生至今未知)→动物→意识(大脑如何产生意识仍未解)→语言(无化石证据,可能永远无法完全理解)→社会与文明。他坦承物理学只覆盖宇宙 4%,其余是暗物质暗能量,「我们对宇宙如何运作知之甚少,更糟的是对我们自己如何运作也知之甚少」——这正是哲学有趣的原因。
  • 对制度好坏的判断留有余地:语言无法被论证反对(反对语言也得用语言);货币「是万恶之源,也是大量善的根源」,总体有益;私有财产总体有益,但美国财富集中在前 1% 手中,让少数人握有过多义务性权力和政治权力,「不是运行社会的健康方式」;奴隶制则内在地邪恶。他明确表示自己没有社会崩溃的一般理论,只提供一个提出问题的本体论框架。
核心句型 · 10
1. how do we reconcile A with B
“How do we reconcile the basic physical structure of the universe with our conception of ourselves as conscious rational free agents”
提出两个看似冲突的立场并追问如何调和。适合论文引言或辩论开场。仿写:How do we reconcile rapid growth with long-term sustainability?
2. it's not enough that … you've got to show how …
“It's not enough that they should be consistent you've got to show how the human reality is a natural outcome of the more basic reality”
先否定一个较弱的要求,再抬高标准。用于提出更严格的论证要求。仿写:It's not enough that the code runs; you've got to show how it scales.
3. X counts as Y in context C
“Getting a majority of votes in the electoral college accounts as being president-elect”
塞尔的构成性规则公式,count as 表示「被算作、被视为」。可用于任何规则或定义的说明。仿写:Three late submissions count as one absence in this course.
4. not in virtue of … but in virtue of …
“It doesn't perform the function in virtue of its physical structure it performs the function … in virtue of our attitudes”
in virtue of 是书面语「凭借」,前后对比排除一种解释、确立另一种。仿写:The contract binds not in virtue of the paper but in virtue of the parties' consent.
5. it was not the case that … rather …
“It was not the case that a whole lot of people were pushing bits of wood around on boards and some genius said … no it's not like that rather playing chess consists in acting in accordance with these rules”
先驳斥一个错误的历史想象,再用 rather 给出正确说法。适合纠正常见误解。仿写:It was not the case that users left because of price; rather, they left because of trust.
6. you can have A without B but you can't have the converse
“You can have a society that has a language but doesn't have money … but you can't have the converse”
表达单向依赖关系,the converse 指「反过来的情况」。用于说明优先性或前提关系。仿写:You can have data without insight, but you can't have the converse.
7. to put it charitably
“A very conservative economist to put it charitably”
插入语,表示「往好里说」,暗示实际情况更糟。委婉批评的地道用法,也可说 to put it mildly。
8. I didn't have the heart to tell them …
“I didn't have the heart to tell them i don't give a damn what you guys think”
not have the heart to 表示「不忍心」。口语叙事中用于交代当时未说出口的真心话,制造幽默反差。
9. there is nothing in … that gives them the power to …
“There's nothing in their status functions prior to that moment that gives them the power to do this”
强调某种权力或资格完全缺乏依据。适合分析合法性问题。仿写:There is nothing in the bylaws that gives the board the power to overrule members.
10. you have to allow yourself to be astounded by what any sane person takes for granted
“To be a philosopher you got to allow yourself to be astounded by what any sane person takes for granted”
take for granted 视为理所当然;allow yourself to be + 过去分词表示主动接纳某种感受。这句可作方法论金句直接引用。
词汇精讲 · 140 · 按出现顺序
give an account of phr. 0:00
对……作出解释、说明(哲学语境常用)
fields of force n. phr. 0:00
力场(物理学)
reconcile /ˈrekənsaɪl/ v. 1:07
调和,使一致(reconcile A with B)
self-conception /ˌself kənˈsepʃən/ n. 1:07
自我观念,对自身的设想
at any rate phr. 1:07
无论如何,不管怎样
ontology /ɑnˈtɑlədʒi/ n. 2:12
本体论;某类事物的存在方式
mode of existence n. phr. 2:12
存在方式
epistemically /ˌepɪˈstemɪkli/ adv. 3:24
在认识论上,就知识而言
hunter gatherer /ˈhʌntər ˈɡæðərər/ n. 3:24
狩猎采集者
gene pool /ˈdʒin pul/ n. 3:24
基因库
continuous with phr. 4:41
与……连续、一脉相承
apparatus /ˌæpəˈrætəs/ n. 4:41
装置,机制(此处指认知能力体系)
presuppose /ˌprisəˈpoʊz/ v. 4:41
以……为前提,预设
brute facts /brut fækts/ n. phr. 5:53
原始事实(不依赖制度的事实,哲学术语)
collective intentionality n. phr. 5:53
集体意向性(「我们打算」的意向形式)
impose functions on phr. 7:01
把功能赋予、加于(某物)
in virtue of phr. 7:01
凭借,由于(书面语)
ingenuity /ˌɪndʒəˈnuəti/ n. 7:01
巧思,独创能力
sordid /ˈsɔrdɪd/ adj. 8:13
不体面的,肮脏的(此处自嘲)
sizable /ˈsaɪzəbəl/ adj. 8:13
相当大的,可观的
observer relative adj. phr. 8:13
观察者相对的(依赖观察者才存在)
constitutive rules /ˈkɑnstətutɪv rulz/ n. phr. 9:29
构成性规则(创造其所规范之行为的规则)
regulative rules /ˈreɡjəleɪtɪv rulz/ n. phr. 9:29
调节性规则(规范已存在行为的规则)
subset /ˈsʌbset/ n. 9:29
子集
bishop /ˈbɪʃəp/ n. 10:38
(国际象棋)象
checkmate /ˈtʃekmeɪt/ n. 10:38
将死
electoral college /ɪˈlektərəl ˈkɑlɪdʒ/ n. 10:38
(美国)选举人团
sworn in phr. 10:38
宣誓就职(be sworn in)
pathetic /pəˈθetɪk/ adj. 11:47
可怜的,单薄无力的
iterates /ˈɪtəreɪts/ v. 11:47
迭代,反复运用
undertaking /ˌʌndərˈteɪkɪŋ/ v. 11:47
承担,订立(合同)
all hell breaks loose idiom 13:10
一下子天翻地覆,乱成一团
spousal benefits /ˈspaʊzəl ˈbenəfɪts/ n. phr. 13:10
配偶福利
entitled to phr. 13:10
有资格享有
interlocks /ˌɪntərˈlɑks/ v. 13:10
相互咬合,连锁
haul off phr. v. 15:21
(美口)突然动手、说干就干
out of thin air idiom 15:21
凭空(创造)
disconcerting /ˌdɪskənˈsɜrtɪŋ/ adj. 16:34
令人不安的
bowels /ˈbaʊəlz/ n. 16:34
深处,内部(in the bowels of)
mind-boggling /ˈmaɪnd ˌbɑɡlɪŋ/ adj. 16:34
难以想象的,令人瞠目的
astounded /əˈstaʊndɪd/ adj. 16:34
震惊的
limited liability corporation n. phr. 17:48
有限责任公司
articles of incorporation n. phr. 17:48
公司设立章程
assimilate /əˈsɪməleɪt/ v. 17:48
吸收,同化(assimilate A into B)
bottom line /ˈbɑtəm laɪn/ n. 18:58
核心结论,要点
signaling systems /ˈsɪɡnəlɪŋ ˈsɪstəmz/ n. phr. 18:58
信号系统
boatload /ˈboʊtloʊd/ n. 20:10
一船的量;(口)一大堆
carted /ˈkɑrtɪd/ v. 20:10
用车运送,拖运
illocusionary force /ˌɪləˈkjuʃəˌneri fɔrs/ n. phr. 20:10
以言行事的力量(正确拼写 illocutionary;奥斯汀术语)
propositional content n. phr. 20:10
命题内容
direction of fit n. phr. 21:11
适配方向(词适应世界/世界适应词)
disobeyed /ˌdɪsəˈbeɪd/ v. 22:22
被违抗
assertive /əˈsɜrtɪv/ adj. / n. 23:32
断言类(言语行为)
commissives /kəˈmɪsɪvz/ n. 23:32
承诺类言语行为
vow /vaʊ/ v. / n. 23:32
发誓,立誓
pledge /pledʒ/ v. / n. 23:32
保证,许诺
expressives /ɪkˈspresɪvz/ n. 24:41
表达类言语行为
adjourn /əˈdʒɜrn/ v. 24:41
宣布休会、散会
duly authorized adj. phr. 24:41
获正当授权的
performatives /pərˈfɔrmətɪvz/ n. 25:58
施行话语(说即做的句子)
bequeath /bɪˈkwið/ v. 25:58
遗赠
legal tender /ˈliɡəl ˈtendər/ n. 27:01
法定货币
epistemologists /ɪˌpɪstəˈmɑlədʒɪsts/ n. 27:01
认识论学者
arrogantly /ˈærəɡəntli/ adv. 27:01
傲慢地
hereby /ˌhɪrˈbaɪ/ adv. 28:21
特此(施行句标志词)
shorthand /ˈʃɔrthænd/ n. 29:36
简略说法
advancing /ədˈvænsɪŋ/ v. 29:36
提出(论点)
co-extensive /ˌkoʊ ɪkˈstensɪv/ adj. 30:50
外延相同的
deontic /diˈɑntɪk/ adj. 32:06
道义的(关于权利义务的)
authorizations /ˌɔθərəˈzeɪʃənz/ n. 32:06
授权
hierarchy /ˈhaɪərɑrki/ n. 33:20
等级体系
lock into phr. v. 33:20
嵌入,与……紧密咬合
binding obligation n. phr. 34:42
有约束力的义务
make your way to phr. 34:42
前往,赶往
inclination /ˌɪnkləˈneɪʃən/ n. 34:42
意愿倾向,偏好
to put it charitably phr. 35:54
客气点说,往好里说
didn't have the heart to idiom 35:54
不忍心(做某事)
give a damn idiom 35:54
在乎(多用否定)
codified /ˈkɑdəfaɪd/ v. 35:54
被编成法典、成文化
a sea of phr. 35:54
大量的,……的汪洋
proliferate /prəˈlɪfəreɪt/ v. 37:14
激增,繁衍
the converse /ˈkɑnvɜrs/ n. 38:18
反过来的情况,逆命题
anthropologist /ˌænθrəˈpɑlədʒɪst/ n. 38:18
人类学家
asymmetry /eɪˈsɪmətri/ n. 39:23
不对称
vested in phr. 39:23
(权力)被授予(by the authority vested in me)
semantics /sɪˈmæntɪks/ n. 40:36
语义,语义学
adjudicating /əˈdʒudɪkeɪtɪŋ/ v. 41:42
审理,裁决
legislation /ˌledʒɪsˈleɪʃən/ n. 41:42
立法,法案
endemic /enˈdemɪk/ adj. 42:49
根深蒂固的,地方性的
impoverished /ɪmˈpɑvərɪʃt/ adj. 42:49
贫乏的
get away with it idiom 42:49
蒙混过关,侥幸成功
throw it open phr. 42:49
开放(讨论),交给大家
subjects /ˈsʌbdʒɪkts/ n. 44:06
臣民(区别于 citizens 公民)
crown colony /kraʊn ˈkɑləni/ n. 44:06
(英国)直辖殖民地
free and clear idiom 45:17
彻底摆脱,无牵无挂
stunt /stʌnt/ n. 45:17
花招,噱头
skeptical /ˈskeptɪkəl/ adj. 46:30
持怀疑态度的
the enlightenment /ɪnˈlaɪtnmənt/ n. 47:42
启蒙运动(17–18 世纪)
forms of address n. phr. 48:51
称谓形式
comrade /ˈkɑmræd/ n. 48:51
同志
undermined /ˌʌndərˈmaɪnd/ v. 48:51
被逐渐削弱、瓦解
spinster /ˈspɪnstər/ n. 50:02
(旧)未婚的年长女性,老处女
obsolete /ˌɑbsəˈlit/ adj. 50:02
过时的,废弃的
articulation /ɑrˌtɪkjəˈleɪʃən/ n. 50:02
明确表达,表述
provocative /prəˈvɑkətɪv/ adj. 50:02
挑衅的,引人争议的
allies /ˈælaɪz/ n. 51:16
盟友
fight it out phr. v. 51:16
打个你死我活,一决胜负
arm wrestling /ɑrm ˈreslɪŋ/ n. 51:16
掰手腕
species of phr. 53:09
……的一种、一类
modal auxiliary verbs n. phr. 53:09
情态助动词
rhetorical questions /rɪˈtɔrɪkəl ˈkwestʃənz/ n. 54:18
反问句,修辞性问句
incompetent /ɪnˈkɑmpətənt/ adj. 54:18
无能的
fungible /ˈfʌndʒəbəl/ adj. 56:24
可互换的,可替代的(经济/法律术语)
indicators /ˈɪndɪkeɪtərz/ n. 56:24
标识物,指示物
worsted flannel slacks /ˈwʊstɪd ˈflænəl slæks/ n. phr. 57:32
精纺法兰绒长裤
tweed jackets /twid ˈdʒækɪts/ n. phr. 57:32
粗花呢外套
readily identifiable adj. phr. 58:39
很容易辨认的
freaks /friks/ n. 1:02:17
怪胎,异常产物
dark matter /dɑrk ˈmætər/ n. 1:03:27
暗物质
drives me crazy idiom 1:03:27
让我抓狂
incantation /ˌɪnkænˈteɪʃən/ n. 1:04:40
咒语
catastrophic collapse n. phr. 1:04:40
灾难性崩溃
human flourishing /ˈhjumən ˈflɜrɪʃɪŋ/ n. phr. 1:05:55
人的繁荣兴盛(亚里士多德伦理学概念)
doozy /ˈduzi/ n. 1:05:55
(美口)棘手的家伙,够呛的东西
well off adj. phr. 1:05:55
境况好的,富裕的
deontology /ˌdiɑnˈtɑlədʒi/ n. 1:07:00
道义论;(此处)权利义务内容
on mass phr. 1:08:06
大规模地(正确拼写 en masse)
causative /ˈkɔzətɪv/ adj. 1:08:06
起因果作用的
prescriptive /prɪˈskrɪptɪv/ adj. 1:08:06
规范性的(与 descriptive 描述性相对)
axioms /ˈæksiəmz/ n. 1:08:06
公理
might makes right idiom 1:09:14
强权即公理
inherently evil adj. phr. 1:09:14
本质上邪恶的
on balance phr. 1:10:19
权衡之下,总体而言
pervasive /pərˈveɪsɪv/ adj. 1:10:19
无处不在的
disproportionate /ˌdɪsprəˈpɔrʃənət/ adj. 1:10:19
不成比例的
ontological plane n. phr. 1:11:25
本体论平面、层次
reducible /rɪˈdusəbəl/ adj. 1:11:25
可还原的
touchy feely /ˈtʌtʃi ˈfili/ adj. 1:12:23
(口)诉诸感受的,感性的
took off phr. v. 1:12:23
起飞,突然兴起
fossil evidence /ˈfɑsəl ˈevɪdəns/ n. 1:12:23
化石证据
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