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第 46 期 · 核心追问 Ⅱ·03「我们真的在理解世界吗？」
Douglas Hofstadter: The Nature of Categories and Concepts
节目发布 2014-03-07章节 · 点击跳转视频
0:01
开场：反对数理逻辑主导的思维观
6:50
什么都数不清：范畴的模糊性
10:25
动词也是范畴：儿童与外语者的选词
19:38
连词是范畴：slash 与 but 的情境
30:08
只能靠类比习得的功能词
38:19
定冠词 the 的微妙选择
43:25
感叹词、谚语与习语命名的情境
51:54
无标签范畴：丹尼在大峡谷
59:34
结论：范畴化与类比是一体两面
65:16
问答：话语空间与智能的定义
73:53
问答：网络新语、语言规范与AI前景
81:24
问答：公共范畴与私人范畴
本期小问 · 档案清单
65:16
会说话，就等于理解吗？
19:38
范畴只是名词吗？but、the 也是范畴吗？
30:08
知识从哪里来？
73:53
人类还是特殊的吗？
本期讲者
道格拉斯·霍夫施塔特美国认知科学家，印第安纳大学教授，《哥德尔、艾舍尔、巴赫》作者（1980年普利策奖）。长期主张类比是认知的核心，与埃马纽埃尔·桑德合著《表象与本质》（2013）。中文世界通行译名「侯世达」。
提问听众斯坦福讲座现场听众，包括一位数学家及多位关注语言、AI与意识问题的听众。
01开场：反对数理逻辑主导的思维观
0:01
well it is an honor to be invited here and to have so many people turn up at this uh this uh Auditorium filling it up and this is where I grew up this is my old stomping grounds uh so it's it's fun sometimes a little Bittersweet but but anyway it's fun to to be back in general to at Stanford and it's also by the way where good albach was not totally written cuz I wrote some two drafts of it in uh in Oregon when I was a graduate student but then when I came down here I uh I I spent another two years working extremely hard at Pat sup's Institute for mathematical studies and the social sciences in Ventura Hall which was then moved physically about a quarter of a mile somewhere else and it still exists um anyway so uh I like to improvised to some extent I'm uh today I have a bunch of notes uh which is a little different from how I often do but I think um uh the notes will help me uh organize myself um my title was the nature of categories and Concepts and I do want to try to uh broaden your notion of what
嗯，能受邀来到这里，还有这么多人来到这个礼堂、把它坐满，真是我的荣幸而且这里就是我长大的地方，是我以前常混的地盘，所以回来挺有意思的，有时候也有点百感交集，不过总之，能回到斯坦福来还是很开心的。顺便说一句，《哥德尔、艾舍尔、巴赫》也差不多是在这里写的——当然不完全是因为我读研究生的时候，在俄勒冈已经写了两稿，但后来我南下来到这里我又花了两年时间，在帕特·萨佩斯的"数学社会科学研究所"里拼命干活那时候研究所在文图拉楼（Ventura Hall），后来那栋楼被整体挪到大约四百米外的地方去了，现在还在总之呢，我这个人多多少少喜欢即兴发挥，不过今天我带了一堆笔记，这跟我平时的做法有点不一样但我觉得这些笔记能帮我把思路理清楚。我这次的题目是"范畴与概念的本质"，我确实想试着拓宽一下各位对这些东西的理解。倒不是说我知道你们心里是怎么想的，但我大致有个感觉
1:22
these things are um and uh not that I know what your notion is but I have a general sense as to how they're used and and I think that they're used in ways that don't represent enough flexibility and and because to me um the action of categorization is uh is at the core of cognition in a in an interesting way that I I hope to convey to you uh today um I think that uh cognitive science has been very uh in influenced over the decades not only cogn science but philosophy of mind uh Linguistics uh perhaps psychology cognitive psychology as well by ideas that were inherited from mathematical logic even mathematical logic of the late 19th century and I think that that mathematical logic puts uh truth and uh reasoning and uh such things in the driver's seat or in the front in first place and I think that that's uh very uh inappropriate for thinking about the nature of thinking but it leaves uh it has uh it leaves I don't how to say it exactly it it there are residues everywhere throughout uh throughout
知道这些概念平时是怎么被使用的。我觉得它们被使用的方式缺少足够的灵活性。因为在我看来范畴化这个动作，以一种很有意思的方式处在认知的核心位置，这一点我希望今天能传达给大家。我认为认知科学几十年来受到了很大的影响——不只是认知科学，还有心灵哲学、语言学可能还有心理学、认知心理学——受到的是那些从数理逻辑继承来的观念，甚至是十九世纪末的数理逻辑我觉得那种数理逻辑把真值、推理之类的东西放到了主导位置、放到了最前面、放在第一位我认为这对于思考"思维的本质"来说非常不合适。但它留下了……它它留下了……我不知道该怎么准确地说，反正它的残余到处都是。在整个认知科学里，你会发现有人
2:51
cognitive science you'll find people for example using the predicate calculus to represent uh uh ideas um and uh that's one one example people talk about people use words that come from mathematical logic even if those words have somewhat changed in their uh in their connotations or in their in their what they mean um so I'm hoping to show you that there are lots of things that you may not have considered to be categories that I think Merit that title uh I would say first of all that categories As We Know from people like wienstein and also Elanor Ro uh are things that uh do not admit of yes and no membership exact yes and no uh uh answers to questions is this a member of that category or not but there are things that can be considered very strong central members things that can be considered peripheral members things that can be considered maybe marginally outside a category and so forth and I think that's this set of this sense of gradation or graded membership is is terribly important uh another thing that I want
比如用谓词演算来表示各种观念，这就是一个例子。人们谈论的时候会使用那些来自数理逻辑的词，哪怕这些词的内涵、或者说它们的意思已经有所改变所以我希望向大家表明，有很多你可能根本没把它当成范畴的东西我认为其实是配得上"范畴"这个名号的。首先我想说的是，正如我们从维特根斯坦、还有埃莉诺·罗施这些人那里了解到的，范畴是这样一种东西：它不接受非黑即白的归属关系，对于"这个东西是不是属于那个范畴"这样的问题，没有确切的是或否的答案。有些东西可以算是非常强的、处于中心的成员，有些可以算是边缘成员，有些也许勉强算在范畴之外，等等。我觉得这种渐变性、或者说程度性的成员资格，是极其重要的。这堂课里我还想讲清楚的另一件事是
4:11
to get across in the lecture is that um I will probably say I may use a term like member of a category because it's very tempting and so forth but you have to kind of you know take it with a grain of salt that if I say that I mean probably a very strong member of a categ something like that because it's clear that things can be uh very dubious members of categories as well um so uh categories often are labeled by words uh and I think that everybody is obviously familiar with sort of the most obvious ones that pop to mind things like book or chair or table uh or bird or or something like that in other words things that that seem to be out there in the world it seem to be physical objects and we say oh is this thing a member of the category book and of like this is that a member of the category book um is this a member of the category book and so forth um so but there are I I would like to say that there are categories that are linguistically named but that are not just single words they are phrases
我很可能会说、我可能会用"某个范畴的成员"这样的说法，因为这么说太顺口了，等等。但你们得多少打个折扣来听：如果我这么说了，我的意思大概是"某个范畴的非常强的成员"之类的因为很明显，有些东西作为范畴成员的资格是很可疑的。那么，范畴往往是用词来标记的。我想大家显然都熟悉那些最容易想到的例子，比如"书""椅子"、"桌子"，或者"鸟"之类的。换句话说，就是那些看上去存在于外部世界的东西看上去像是实体物件，我们会说：噢，这个东西算不算"书"这个范畴的成员？这个是不是书这个范畴的成员，嗯，这个是不是书这个范畴的成员，等等，嗯，不过还有一点，我想说的是有些范畴是有语言名称的，但它们并不只是单个词，它们是短语
5:30
um or they are uh even longer things than phrases um whole uh whole sentences uh or long very long phrases and I will give a number of examples of those um okay uh another thing that I'm going to say I'm just giving you a kind of a Prelude or foraste of what I'm going to jump into in a moment um is that categorization and C ories themselves are very intimately related to analogy making and this is one of my theme songs that in fact I gave a lecture here at Stanford in 2006 presidential lecture called analogy as the core of cognition and what I'm saying today will be very similar to what I said then but uh it will have a number of different examples and perhaps some uh some different points of emphasis um so categories uh usually begin as a sort of a Singleton and I'll give examples of this and and then they blur or spread outwards by a process of analogy making sometimes I could refer to it as pluralization when something that's a singular becomes a plural and uh another another thing which maybe is more obvious with
嗯，或者它们比短语还要长，嗯，是整个、整个句子，或者很长很长的短语，我会举一些这样的例子，嗯，好的，另外我要说的一点——我现在只是给大家一个前奏，或者说是接下来马上要展开的内容的预告——就是范畴化和范畴本身，跟类比有着非常密切的关系，这是我的主题曲之一，事实上我2006年在斯坦福做过一次校长讲座题目叫《类比是认知的核心》，我今天要讲的内容会和当年讲的很相似，但是会有一些不同的例子，也许还有一些不同的侧重点，嗯，那么范畴呢通常一开始是某种单个的个例，我会举例说明，然后它们会通过类比的过程变得模糊、向外扩散，有时我会把这称作“复数化”，就是原本单数的东西变成了复数。还有一点，这一点在范畴化上也许比在类比上更明显，那就是它随时都在发生
02什么都数不清：范畴的模糊性
6:50
categorization than it is with analogy making is that it happens all the time many times per second when I talk about analogy I often Begin by saying analogy happens many times per second as opposed to being something that happens for that is sort of a analogies are not just a tools uh for sophisticated reasoners that are reeled out in special circumstances once every week or once every uh month or something like that that analogy making is happening many many times per second by the way um this phrase uh many many times I uh per second uh it's clear that if you ask me how many times I would not say exactly 10 or exactly 11 times per second and even if you said in the last second in just this last second how many analogies did you make I would instantly say uh that's a meaningless question um and it's tied in with a sort of a thesis that I have that I that I state humorously but that I State seriously at the same time which is you can't count anything um and what do I mean by that I mean that well-meaning people uh often
每秒钟发生很多次。我谈类比的时候，常常一开头就说，类比每秒钟发生很多次，而不是说它是那种偶尔才发生的事——类比不只是老练的推理者在特殊场合才拿出来用的工具，不是每周一次或者每月一次那种，而是说类比每秒钟都在发生很多很多次。顺便说一句，嗯，“每秒钟很多很多次”这个说法，很明显，如果你问我到底多少次，我不会说正好10次或者正好11次。哪怕你说，就在刚刚过去的那一秒里就那一秒，你做了多少次类比，我会立刻说，嗯，这是个没有意义的问题。而且这跟我的一个论点有关，我说这话时是半开玩笑的，但同时也是认真的，那就是：你什么都数不清嗯，我这话是什么意思呢？我的意思是，好心的人常常会问一些听上去很合理的问题
7:59
ask questions that sound very sensible but that when you look at them carefully make no or very little sense I mean they they clearly have an idea in their mind their the idea is not completely vacuous but uh but trying to attach numbers often doesn't make any sense people will say to me for example how many languages do you speak and uh I'm always caught off guard and a long time ago I came up with a humorous answer to answer it I say I'm py lingual where Pi is 3.14 blah blah blah and what I mean by that is I I I mean I don't really firstly I it would be rather humorous if I meant it literally if I meant you know I have a a transcendental number you know it's an irrational number of languages and I could tell you the millionth decimal place obviously I don't mean that uh I mean perhaps something like well if you were to add them all up and they all come in different sort of blurry fractions you might get something around three um and uh so you know various languages that I've studied at different levels that
但你仔细一看，会发现它们没有意义，或者意义很小。我是说，他们心里显然是有个想法的那个想法并不是完全空洞的，但是，嗯，但要给它安上数字，往往就毫无意义了。比如人们会问我，你会说几种语言？嗯，我总是被问得措手不及。很久以前我想出了一个幽默的回答，我说我是“π语者”，π就是3.14等等等等。我这么说的意思是，我，嗯，我并不是真的……首先，如果我是字面意义上这么说的，那就挺搞笑了，比如说我掌握了一个超越数那么多的语言，是个无理数，我还能告诉你小数点后第一百万位是多少——显然我不是那个意思。嗯，我的意思大概是这样：如果你把它们都加起来，而每一种都是某个模模糊糊的分数你可能会得到差不多三这个数。嗯，所以你看，我学过各种各样的语言，学到的程度各不相同
9:10
I've achieved at different times I've Mastery at high at one time very low at another time uh it's all very very hard to quantify and it's kind of meaningless and uh and the question is well meant but I always kind of uh don't know how to answer it whatsoever uh because I've always loved languages and I've studied lots of them and you know I I studied a language like tamel in you know about 50 years ago and I probably learned about five words how do you count how do you count that how much of a native speaker of Tamil am I at that point you know .1 you know something like that I mean it's uh so how do you how do you add up these fractions uh anyway it's it's very meaningless um so another thing is is that uh what is a language you can't say what a language is even if uh even if you uh thought you agreed that counting in how many of them I speak is is blurry uh what even counts as a language is extremely blurry uh I mean Dutch if it weren't for political history could be considered a dialect of German uh that
在不同时期达到的水平也不同，某个时候掌握得很好，另一个时候又很差，嗯，这一切都非常难量化，而且量化本身就有点没意义。嗯，这个问题问得是出于好意，但我总是有点，嗯，完全不知道该怎么回答。因为我一直很喜欢语言，学过很多种。你知道，我大概50年前学过泰米尔语这样的语言，大概学会了五个词。这你怎么算？你怎么算这个？那时候我算是多少个泰米尔语母语者？零点一？差不多这种感觉吧。我是说这，嗯，所以你怎么把这些分数加起来？总之，这非常没有意义。嗯，还有一点是什么算一种语言？你根本说不清什么是一种语言。就算，嗯，就算你觉得你同意“我会说几种”这件事是模糊的，那么什么才算得上是一种语言，本身也极其模糊。我是说，荷兰语，如果不是因为政治历史的原因，完全可以被看作德语的一种方言。而中国境内说的很多语言本来不该
03动词也是范畴：儿童与外语者的选词
10:25
many languages spoken in China wouldn't be called dialects just the historical thing that they're called dialects uh and one could go on and on and saying things like that so it's very important to to realize that that these questions about categories are extremely graded and blurry um okay um I'm going I'm going to um I probably I should uh talk about some nouns I did already that is language is an example of a noun that is a uh what one might normally consider a category uh and I've already tried to show that that's a very blurry thing but I I'd like to uh to extend the notion of category membership to talk about categories that are attached that have linguistic labels but the labels are are not nouns um I don't know how many people think of categories in that way but over the past 20 30 years I've certainly come to thinking of categories in that way myself and so I'd like to to uh evoke some examples uh for you to suggest let's begin with verbs so I've uh in in this book by the way which has two authors not one
被叫做方言，只是历史原因让它们被叫做方言。嗯，这样的例子可以一直举下去诸如此类。所以非常重要的是要认识到，这些关于范畴的问题都是极度有程度差别的而且是模糊的。嗯，好的，嗯，我接下来要，嗯，我大概应该讲讲名词——其实我已经讲了，就是“语言”就是一个名词的例子，是那种人们通常会认为是范畴的东西。嗯，我刚才已经试图说明，那是个非常模糊的东西。但我想把范畴成员这个概念扩展一下，来谈谈那些有语言标签、但标签不是名词的范畴。嗯，我不知道有多少人会那样去想范畴，但在过去二三十年里，我自己确实开始那样看待范畴了。所以我想举一些例子给大家提示一下。我们从动词开始。顺便说一句，在这本书里——它有两位作者，不是一位
11:50
although uh how you can't count anything uh Emmanuel sere is my co-author author equal co-author uh I just wanted to mention that it's very important to me that we both be counted there um we uh give uh lots of examples of um children's use of verbs very young children's use of verbs and how uh they label situations in interesting ways um which are very understandable but which might sound like mistakes but which we argue are not really mistakes so let's let me take an example little girl said I undressed the banana now um that's a a wonderful example of a situation that evokes the word or the verb to undress uh it evoked it spontaneously you know if if she had known the verb heal um perhaps that would have then you could say that undress is is perhaps an act accident although of course once again you can't count anything and to say whether she knows or doesn't know the word peel is is a very blurry uh thing in itself uh she might have heard it once or twice or some indeterminate number around one or
虽然，嗯，虽说你什么都数不清——埃马纽埃尔·桑德是我的合著者，是完全平等的合著者，我只是想提一下，我很在意我们两个人都要被算进去。嗯，我们在书里举了很多例子，关于孩子对动词的使用，非常小的孩子对动词的使用，以及他们如何用有趣的方式给情境贴标签。嗯，那些用法很好理解，但听上去可能像是错误，而我们认为那其实并不是错误。那么，我举个例子，有个小女孩说“我把香蕉脱衣服了。”嗯，这是个绝妙的例子，说明有个情境唤起了“脱衣服”这个词、这个动词。它是被自发唤起的。你知道，如果她当时知道“剥”这个动词，嗯，那也许你就可以说用“脱衣服”是个偶然的差错当然，再说一遍，你什么都数不清，要说她到底知不知道“剥”这个词本身就是件非常模糊的事。她可能听过一两次，或者某个说不清的、大概一两次左右的次数
13:16
two uh she might have she might have uh she she might have even used it once or twice but but uh but what does it to mean to know a word I mean she might know the word undress far better than she knows the word to peel my point is is simply that uh when there is a label that's very available in her vocabulary and that seems to match the situation in a very reasonable way it's not I don't think it's reasonable to call it an error even if in her vocabulary there is sort of on the fringes another word that might might be considered by native speakers adult native speakers to be a little bit more uh or more appropriate um or um my son at age five his first sentence at school in Italian was I want to eat some water I mean in English he wouldn't have said that but he didn't know enough Italian to say ber he said M and so I want to eat some water it was in a certain sense it was an error in another sense he blurted it out very spontaneously and he may not have even thought about whether he was groping for
嗯，她可能，她可能，嗯，她甚至可能自己用过一两次。但是，嗯，但“知道一个词”到底是什么意思呢？我是说，她可能对“脱衣服”这个词的掌握远远好过对“剥”这个词。我想说的其实很简单：当她的词汇库里有一个非常容易调用的标签，而这个标签又以一种相当合理的方式匹配了那个情境，那我认为把它叫作错误是不合理的，哪怕在她的词汇里边缘位置上还有另一个词，可能会被母语者、被成年母语者认为更加，嗯，更加贴切一点。嗯，或者，嗯，我儿子五岁的时候，他在学校说的第一句意大利语是“我想吃点水”。我是说，用英语他不会那么说，但他的意大利语还不够好，说不出bere，他说的是mangiare于是就成了“我想吃点水”。从某种意义上说这是个错误，从另一种意义上说，他是非常自发地脱口而出的，他可能甚至都没意识到自己是在摸索一个自己不知道的词，他就是
14:28
a word that he didn't know he just it blur he probably just blurted it out um children asked things like do buses eat gas uh my uh my co-author emanuel's daughter once asked her mother after there was a party in their uh in their apartment building uh upstairs um and they had made a lot of noise and her mother was very annoyed uh at the neighbors uh Talia woke up and she said are you going to scold the neighbors today um and it's it's it's a blurry sort of Fringe usage of scold um and on and on I have lots of other examples but I don't want to get too bogged down in examples um my point is that each of these cases of EV evocation of a verb was to my mind uh showing that the situation that which is a very large say a party that takes Place uh in the evening involving a bunch of people uh who live in the same apartment building who are seem to be doing something that's somewhat annoying to a a parent figure uh and all of that gets perceived as one situation and it evokes the word scold and uh so it's a member for for
脱口而出了。嗯，孩子会问“公交车吃汽油吗？”这样的问题。嗯，我的，我的合著者埃马纽埃尔的女儿有一次问她妈妈——起因是他们那栋公寓楼里，嗯，楼上开了个派对，嗯，闹出了很大的动静，她妈妈对邻居非常恼火。嗯，塔莉娅醒了，她说：“你今天要去骂邻居们吗？”嗯，这是对“骂”这个词一种模糊的、边缘性的用法。嗯，还有很多很多，我还有很多别的例子，但我不想在例子上陷得太深。嗯，我想说的是，这每一个唤起动词的例子，在我看来，嗯都表明：那个情境——一个很大的情境，比如说一场派对，嗯，发生在晚上，牵涉到一群人，嗯他们住在同一栋公寓楼里，他们在做的事情看起来让一位家长般的人物有点恼火——所有这一切被感知为一个整体情境，而它唤起了“骂”这个词。嗯，所以它是一个成员，对
15:54
Talia was a member of the category to scold so I'm only trying to suggest uh that uh verbs are the names of categories and uh that's not just nouns um they're very hard to Define though and anybody who has tried to learn a foreign language knows how often not only with verbs with all words but uh but in this case uh just talking about verbs how hard it is to select the right verb for a certain circumstance my wife who is Chinese um has the hardest time figuring out what verb to use to apply to movies um and uh it's interesting because um I I've never I had well maybe I thought about it but uh I I it really became very apparent that that she was struggling have you seen this movie have you looked at this movie have you watched this movie um and and I had a hard time figuring out which was the right one I still do occasionally I know that I'll come out saying things spontaneously without thinking about them and I'll choose a native speaker verb I I know you can say I've seen that movie I'm not sure if I would say I've
塔莉娅来说，它是“骂”这个范畴的成员。所以我只是想提示，嗯，动词也是范畴的名称，嗯，不只是名词才是嗯，不过它们非常难定义。任何试图学过外语的人都知道，有多少时候——不只是动词，所有的词都一样，但，嗯，就我们现在谈的动词而言——要为某个情境挑出恰当的动词有多难。我妻子是中国人，嗯，她最头疼的就是搞清楚说到电影该用哪个动词。嗯而且，嗯，这挺有意思的，因为，嗯，我从来没有……我，嗯，也许我想过，但，嗯，我，这件事真的变得非常明显：她很吃力——have you seen this movie，have you looked at this movie，have you watched this movie。嗯，而我也很难说清哪个才是对的。我现在偶尔还是这样。我知道我会不假思索地自发说出一些话然后我会选一个母语者的动词。我知道你可以说 I've seen that movie，我不确定我会不会说 I've
17:11
looked at that movie and I don't think I would I may I might say I've watch that movie let's watch a movie tonight I think we could say that so it shows um it shows that there that the the kinds of circumstances that evoke the choice of a particular category are ex extreme subtle um and of course in Chinese when I try to speak Chinese I have a rough time figuring out what verb to use to say to see or what verb to use to say to read or what verb to use to say almost anything frankly in Chinese it's very very difficult let's take the the verb to fall I can give you about I wrote down about uh seven different uh verbs that mean to fall in Chinese uh I can make name them quickly for people who are interested all of those are different different ways of saying to fall some of them might apply to leaves falling off of a tree someone some might apply to prices in the or things in the stock market falling some might apply to somebody falling something falling off of a surface onto a lower surface some
looked at that movie，我觉得我不会说。我可能，我可能会说 I've watched that movie，Let's watch a movie tonight，我觉得这么说可以。所以这说明，嗯，这说明，那种唤起某个特定范畴选择的情境是极其、极其微妙的。嗯，当然，反过来，我说中文的时候也很费劲，搞不清“看见”该用哪个动词，“阅读”该用哪个动词，说几乎任何东西该用哪个动词坦白讲，中文真的非常非常难。就拿“fall”这个动词来说吧，我大概可以给你——我写下了大概七个不同的、在中文里表示“fall”的动词，嗯，我可以给有兴趣的人快速念一下这些全都是不同的、表达“落下”的方式。有些可能用于叶子从树上落下，有些可能用于股市里价格或者行情的下跌，有些可能用于人摔倒、东西从一个表面掉到更低的表面上，有些可能用于，嗯，像楼房那样倒塌，有些可能用于人
18:26
might apply to um uh toppling over like a building some might apply to a person falling down and on and on and learning exactly which of these verbs to use in which circumstance is extremely difficult so that it seems to me to fall is a very obvious notion but when I try to say it in Chinese it's not obvious at all um and and it's because the categories that that language provides to its speakers are carved up in a very subtle way now don't make don't get me wrong I'm not going to say that there are precise boundaries and you're either right or wrong uh that's not what I'm trying to say but I I am trying to say that native speakers will on occasion say no you can't say that uh or this would be a good word to use in this situation or that one would be a good one to use in that situation I'm not trying to say that the boundaries are are precise I'm just trying to say that they're elusive the the nature of these blurry halos uh is very subtle um so now let's uh let's move on to um some uh some other
跌倒，等等等等。而要学会在哪种情形下究竟该用哪一个动词，是极其困难的。所以在我看来，“fall”是个非常显而易见的概念，但当我试着用中文说它时，一点都不显而易见。嗯，这是因为一门语言提供给它的使用者的那些范畴，是以极其微妙的方式切分的。不过别，别误会我的意思，我不是要说存在精确的边界、你不是对就是错，那不是我想说的。但我确实想说的是，母语者有时候会说，不行，你不能那么说，嗯，或者说这个词用在这种情境里比较好，那个词用在那种情境里比较好。我不是想说这些边界是精确的，我只是想说它们很难捉摸。这些模糊光晕的性质，嗯，是非常微妙的。嗯，那么现在我们来看看，嗯，一些别的范畴。我觉得有一类范畴挺有意思，就是连词。你
04连词是范畴：slash 与 but 的情境
19:38
categories a category a set of uh categories that I think is interesting is conjunctions you might never think of a conjunction as being the name of a category but uh in order to get us into the right frame of mind I'd like to uh suggest a category or a conjunction that is a fairly recent one I believe it probably didn't exist 50 years ago or maybe 60 years ago I don't know um that is the category slash um you know you say uh something slash something so I have a few examples here some of which by the way I just made up today uh one of which I heard today when Adam katf who was in this audience uh used it so I quickly copied it down and uh I'll I'll begin with that example uh he said uh how do these compare with your files SL prints and um these images that is how do these images compare with your files SL prints and um and so I asked him why he said slash and what did he mean what does this this uh thing mean and he thought about it he said well it's kind of like and but it's a little bit
可能从来不会觉得一个连词会是某个范畴的名称，但，嗯，为了让我们进入对的思路，我想提出一个范畴、或者说一个连词，它出现得相当晚，我相信它在50年前、也许60年前大概还不存在，我也不确定。嗯，那就是“斜杠”这个范畴。嗯，你知道，你会说，某某斜杠某某。我这里有几个例子，顺便说一句，其中有些是我今天刚编出来的，还有一个是我今天听到的，是在座的亚当·卡茨夫用到的，我赶紧把它记了下来。嗯，我就从那个例子开始吧，嗯，他说，嗯，这些跟你的文件斜杠打印件相比怎么样？嗯，还有这些图像——就是说，这些图像跟你的文件斜杠打印件相比怎么样。嗯，于是我就问他为什么他说了“斜杠”，他是什么意思，这个，嗯，这个东西是什么意思？他想了想，说，嗯，它有点像“和”，但又有一点……它们，它们其实是……我不想把它们分开来说，说它们是
20:56
they're they're really this it's I don't want to se separate and say that they're they're two different things they're really sort of the same thing they're one thing they're combined together and so I thought okay that's that's possibly part of the answer I mean a native speaker doesn't always know why they choose what they say comes out spontaneously where does it come from well from analogy making it comes from this situation is like other situations that I've heard people use the word slash in that's where it comes from and we don't know how how our analogy facility Works unconsciously um so I wrote some others down um I made some up you say an electron is a wave SL particle maybe now why is that so funny another one she's a bimbo self-marketing genius uh now here's one I really heard those I made up but here's one I heard the other here's one I made I heard the other day uh it's a you know just some random conversation uh woman said I make a really good avocado dip SL salsa and um you know so I can read you
两个不同的东西，它们其实算是同一个东西，是一个东西，是合在一起的。于是我想，好吧，这可能是答案的一部分。我是说，母语者并不总是知道自己为什么会选这么说，话是自发冒出来的。那它是从哪儿来的呢？来自类比，它来自“这个情境像我听过别人用‘斜杠’这个词的那些情境”，它就是从那儿来的。而我们并不知道我们的类比机能是怎么在无意识中运作的。嗯，所以我还写了一些别的，嗯，有些是我自己编的。你会说，电子是波斜杠粒子。也许吧。那这为什么这么好笑呢？还有一个：她是个花瓶斜杠自我营销天才。嗯，下面这个是我真的听到的——刚才那些是我编的，但这个是我前几天听到的，嗯，就是，你知道，随便的一段对话，嗯，一个女的说，我做的牛油果酱斜杠莎莎酱特别好吃。嗯，你知道，我还可以再给你念几个：《唐顿庄园》是一部时代剧斜杠肥皂剧。嗯，还有，他是个
22:17
some others Downtown Abbey is a period piece SL soap opera uh and uh he's an athlete SL entrepreneur all of these maybe I I don't know I mean those ones I made up so I don't know I mean I'm a native speaker but I didn't blurt them out I was consciously trying to make them up so I I can't claim that these are really good usages but um but my point is that you if you'll if you open your ears you'll hear slash a lot and you know you've already heard it but I mean open your ears and send me emails if you hear slash I may be overwhelmed but I'd love to get I'd love to get a a collection of Slash um usages because it's interesting it's it's a new conjunction and it defines a certain set of situations and those situations are recognized by analogy to other situations that native speakers use that have evoked that word in the uh in the native speech of native speakers and it's a very uh it's a very subtle thing now not only new conjunctions uh but old conjunctions are um are uh the names of categories so one of my favorites is the
运动员斜杠创业者。所有这些也许……我，我也说不好，我是说，那几个是我编的，所以我不确定。我是说，我是母语者，但它们不是我脱口而出的，我是有意识地在编，所以我不能声称这些真的是好的用法。但，嗯，但我想说的是，如果你，如果你竖起耳朵，你会经常听到“斜杠”。而且你知道，你其实已经听到过了，但我是说，竖起耳朵听，如果你听到“斜杠”，就给我发邮件。我可能会被淹没，但我很想收集到，我很想收集到一批“斜杠”的用法，嗯，因为这很有意思，它是一个新的连词，它界定了一类特定的情境，而这些情境是通过类比被识别出来的——类比于母语者在自己的言语中曾经用过这个词、被这个词唤起过的那些情境。嗯，这是件非常，嗯，非常微妙的事。那么，不只是新的连词，嗯，老的连词，嗯，也是范畴的名称。我最喜欢的一个就是“but”这个词。嗯，我想说，嗯，这是
23:33
word but uh and I will say that uh this is one of those cases where mathematical logic uh had a bad effect on me I remember maybe 50 years ago maybe more maybe 55 well not quite but anyway uh 53 54 years ago I was a big efficient a of mathematical logic and I was buying Math logic books all the time trying to learn from them and uh of course one of the first things you learn is there are things that they call uh what they call them and and or and logical connectives I guess is what they call them and and and or and if then not and these are operators in symbolic logic and uh so the word uh and was front and center and then they had to figure F out something to say about the word but and a couple of the books that I had said oh but is is is a synonym of and it's just got a little flavor some kind of you know Smoky flavor to it it's sort of like and barbecue flavored and or something and so I believed that I fell for that I thought okay but is a synonym of and it's just kind of this funny
数理逻辑对我产生过不良影响的例子之一。我记得大概50年前，也许更早，也许55年，嗯，不完全是，反正，嗯，53年前54年前，我特别痴迷数理逻辑，一直在买数理逻辑的书，想从书里学学到东西。当然，你最先学到的东西之一就是有一类东西，他们管它们叫and、or 这些，我想他们管这些叫逻辑联结词，and、or、if-then、not，这些都是符号逻辑里的算子。所以 and 这个词是被摆在最显眼位置的。然后他们就得想办法说说 but 这个词。我手上有几本书说，哦，but 就是 and 的同义词，只不过带了点味道，你知道，有点烟熏味，就好像是烧烤味的 and 之类的。所以我就信了，我就上当了。我想，好吧，but 就是 and 的同义词，只是 and 的一个有点滑稽的变体。而这
24:52
funny quality version of and and uh it took me decade to overcome that prejudice uh because I was so influenced by the idea that all that mattered in language is things like truth and falsity um and um later I came to realize that that's not what language is about and uh and and and at that point the word but became extremely interesting to me and I I have a file at home uh in which uh I write down unfortunately I don't have enough examples again I love examples uh but I have certain examples in which I see the word uh and or but used in a way that I think is kind of questionable or interesting and I write them down often I'm writing an email or something like that and I write and and then I look at it as I look back and I and I say oh that doesn't flow very well this situation is not an an situation this is a but situation this is a member of the category but not a member of the category and and what am I referring to I'm not referring to some object in the world or some action where somebody is
花了我几十年才摆脱这个偏见，因为我太受那种观念的影响了——以为语言里唯一要紧的就是真和假之类的东西。后来我才意识到，语言根本不是关于这个的。也就是从那时候起，but 这个词对我来说变得极其有意思。我在家里有个文件，里面我会记下——可惜我没有足够多的例子，我还是那句话，我爱例子——但我确实有一些例子，里面 and 或者 but 的用法我觉得有点可疑或者很有意思，我就把它们记下来。常常是我在写邮件之类的东西，我写了 and，然后回头一看，我就说，哦，这读起来不太顺，这个情境不是一个 and 的情境，这是一个 but 的情境，这是 but 这个范畴的成员，不是 and 这个范畴的成员。那我指的是什么呢？我指的不是世上的某个物体，也不是某人以某种方式挥动手臂的某个动作，我指的
26:10
moving their arms in some way I'm referring to a situation in what I would call discourse space uh an act of communication an attempt to communicate ideas from my mind to somebody else's mind and this attempt often takes place or usually takes place but not completely through language and and so this chain or this stream of symbols that is coming out of my mouth or my fingers or whatever this uh it's it's a it's an event that's taking place in discourse space and um and so it this in this space there are situations and some situations evoke this the word but more more appropriately or more the word but is more appropriate than the word and in those situations so I'm going to give you um an example uh let's say here's one that um uh I read in a bio of a speaker who was coming to give electron translation at Indiana University and he was a translator from Japanese and that may not seem relevant but it'll you'll see that I think it is um it was the first sentence in his little bio and it said Charles Fox was
是我称之为「话语空间」里的一个情境——一次交流行为，一次试图把我脑子里的想法传达到别人脑子里的尝试。而这种尝试常常、或者说通常是通过语言进行的，虽然不完全是。所以这条从我嘴里、或者从我手指头里出来的符号链条、符号流，这个东西，它是发生在话语空间里的一个事件。所以在这个空间里存在各种情境，有些情境会唤起but 这个词，也就是在那些情境里 but 比 and 更贴切。所以我给大家举个例子。比如说，这个是我在一位来印第安纳大学做翻译讲座的讲者的简介里读到的。他是个日语译者，这一点看起来可能不相关，但你会发现我觉得它是相关的。那是他那段小简介的第一句话，写的是：Charles Fox 生于亚利桑那州，but 在得州长大。我就想，这个
27:35
born in Arizona but grew up in Texas and I thought what is this butt what is why but I mean it's dime a dozen to be born in one place and grow up in a different place I mean if it had said Charles Fox was born in Arizona but grew up in Japan I would completely understand the reason that this situation roke was a member of the butt category but when it was just saying he was born in Arizona I mean be like saying he was uh you know he was born on Dolores Street and grew up on marada AV I mean or something I don't know what but you know born in born in Minneapolis but grew up in St Paul I mean so what it's not a butt situation uh and I think you recognize that me your laughter indicates it and and I think that we understand that that um these things are shaded and I'm not again trying to say that some things are exactly members 100% and others are zero there are grades and shades of membership in the butt category and the and category which is why when I'm writing I often write the word and and
but 是怎么回事？为什么用 but？我是说，生在一个地方、在另一个地方长大，这也太常见了。如果它写的是 Charles Fox 生于亚利桑那州，but 在日本长大，我就完全能理解为什么这个情境属于 but 这个范畴。可它只是说他生在亚利桑那州，这就好比说他，你知道，他生在Dolores 街，在 Marada 大道长大，之类的，我也说不好，或者说生在明尼阿波利斯，but 在圣保罗长大——那又怎样呢？这不是一个 but 的情境。我想你们也认同这一点，你们的笑声说明了这一点。而且我觉得我们都明白，这些东西是有浓淡层次的。我再强调一次，我不是想说有些东西百分之百是成员、另一些是零，隶属于 but 这个范畴和 and 这个范畴是有程度、有深浅之分的。正因为这样，我写东西的时候常常写下 and，然后回头一看说，这个
28:52
then go back and say this isn't as good a member of the and category as it is of the butt category and I replace the word these are judgment calls these are not yes or no truth statements or Truth uh assignments um here's one that I wrote in an email to somebody it said my friend sirel was supposed to come to my birthday but ducked out at the last moment I didn't write but I'm sorry I wrote and and ducked out at the last moment and then when I went back and reread it I thought this it would be better to say but and so I was changing the membership of the category that I was assigning this full thought to um another example I did these pieces over 40 years ago and I'm still very fond of them and I changed it to butt after a while uh and and so on I have many many examples of this kind of a thing uh the only idea that I'm really trying to get across to you is that conjunction s are names of categories too so let's uh let's look at some other conjunctions that are related to but I I have an example that I think you will
作为 and 这个范畴的成员，还不如作为 but 这个范畴的成员来得合适，于是我就把词换掉。这些都是判断，不是是或否的真值陈述、真值指派。这里还有一个，是我写给某人的邮件里的：我的朋友 Cyril 本来说好要来我的生日聚会，but 最后一刻退出了。我当时没写 but，抱歉，我写的是 and，「and 最后一刻退出了」。后来我回头重读的时候，觉得这里说 but 会更好。所以我是在改变我给这整个想法所指派的范畴归属。另一个例子：这些作品我是40多年前做的，and 我到现在还很喜欢它们。过了一会儿我把它改成了 but。诸如此类，我有非常非常多这类例子。我真正想传达给你们的唯一一个想法就是：连词也是范畴的名称。那我们来看看另外一些跟 but 有关的连词。我有个例子，我想你们会觉得挺好笑的，我自己觉得挺好笑：光波是横波，nonetheless（尽管如此），声波是
05只能靠类比习得的功能词
30:08
find amusing I I find it amusing light waves are transverse nonetheless sound waves are longitudinal does that sound sort of just does not compute but could you put your did you have you ever tried to figure out what situations EV are evoked by nonetheless what is the difference between nonetheless however but whereas on the other hand by contrast nevertheless uh and so forth do have you ever really tried to analyze it no did anyone ever teach you no uh you picked it up by by osmosis um and uh so we could go through a substit we could substitute for nonetheless and get some other sentences let's try this one light waves are transverse however sound waves are longitudinal Maybe here's one that I think works just fine at least excuse me light waves are are transverse but sound waves are longitudinal sounds good uh light waves are transverse that being said sound waves are longitudinal good line remember it you know tell that at the cocktail parties you'll get a lot of lasses uh I mean it is interesting um so
纵波。这听起来是不是有点……就是转不过来？但你们能不能——你们有没有试过弄清楚nonetheless 是被什么样的情境唤起的？nonetheless、however、but、whereas、on the other hand、by contrast、nevertheless 等等，这些之间的区别到底是什么？你们真的认真分析过吗？没有。有人教过你们吗？没有。你们是耳濡目染学会的。那我们可以做个替换，把 nonetheless 换掉，得到另外一些句子。试试这个：光波是横波，however，声波是纵波。也许吧。这个我觉得完全没问题，不好意思——光波是横波，but 声波是纵波。听着不错。光波是横波，that being said（话虽如此），声波是纵波。这句话不错，记住它，去鸡尾酒会上讲，能招来一堆姑娘。我是说，这确实挺有意思的。所以
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a lot of categories that one uh acquires uh or that one Encounters in life are are very hard to pin down I will always remember I'm sorry this is a foreign language example but I I'll I'll relate it to uh maybe some others in English momentarily um when I was working with Emanuel on this book I would go to Paris every summer uh for a month or so and I watched his little daughter Talia grow up and uh she's now about 11 and I remember when she was about five she uh was very a proud new owner of a new word and uh this word was uh now it's actually not one word it's actually two words it's and but for Talia who had only heard it spoken rapidly mostly by her brothers and maybe her parents and of course maybe some other little kids but little kids her age weren't say I mean four four-year-olds 5-year-olds don't go around saying par very much uh but you know maybe she was six I don't remember but the point is that all kids hear words in their environment and they uh they when the word when they're just
人一生中习得的、或者说遇到的很多范畴，都是非常难以说清楚的。我永远记得——抱歉，这是个外语的例子，不过我待会儿会把它跟英语里的一些例子联系起来。我跟 Emmanuel 合写那本书的时候，每年夏天都会去巴黎待一个月左右，我看着他的小女儿 Talia 长大。她现在大概11岁了。我记得她大概五岁的时候，特别得意地新拥有了一个词。这个词是……其实它不是一个词，其实是两个词，是 par contre。但对 Talia 来说，她只听过别人快速地说出来，主要是她哥哥们，也许还有她父母，当然可能还有别的小孩，不过跟她同龄的小孩不太会说——我是说四岁、五岁的小孩不会满嘴 par contre。不过你知道，也许她当时六岁，我记不清了。重点是，所有小孩都会听到周围环境里的词，而他们在刚开始体会到一个词的味道的时候，就会兴致勃勃地、热情洋溢地用它，
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beginning to pick up the flavor of it they use it with enthusiasm with ardor with uh with Pizzaz I don't know if that's the right word I don't know if this is a member of the Pizzaz category uh but but let me just say what it means p means something like on the other hand so she would say something like uh you know my brother mik is going to do this but I I'm going to do some you know this other thing and uh but she wouldn't say because she didn't know that there was a final re in it because they when you speak quickly you and it just has this chunk feel to it it's just this chunk and and she was delightedly using this word um and I really noticed it it it just was in Her speech all the time cuz she was savoring it and u i I think you could make an analogy to for example uh an English speaker of English and a kid who's learning English maybe at about age five saying using word a word like uh definitely uh something like that you know and using it peppering their speech with the word definitely I think you
带着一股劲儿。我不知道这个说法对不对，我不知道这算不算「带劲」这个范畴的成员。不过让我先说说它是什么意思：par contre 的意思有点像「另一方面」。所以她会说这样的话：我哥哥 Mik 要去做这个，par contre 我要去做那个别的事。但她不会说完整的，因为她不知道后面还有个 -tre，因为人们说快了就……它就整个是一块儿的感觉，就是一整块。而她就是欢天喜地地在用这个词。我真的注意到了，它在她的话里到处都是，因为她在细细品味它。我觉得你可以做个类比，比如说一个说英语的小孩，学英语学到大概五岁的时候，说一个像 definitely 这样的词，你知道，满嘴都是 definitely。我想你会发现，这听起来会有点
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would find they it would sound a little bit funny because it would sound like like they were trying to be a little sophisticated and they would be trying to be sophisticated they would be reaching just a little bit beyond the limits of their understanding and they would misuse it in the sense of that is adults they would misuse it maybe in their own sense of what it means it would be dead on anyway uh but gradually over time everybody sort of comes to an agreement more or less as to how what the situations are that properly evoke this word um I I remember uh a long time ago there were a couple of words in French that uh I was I think I used with the same amount of enthusiasm as Talia if there are native speakers or non-native speakers of French people who love the French language you'll probably you'll know what I'm talking about if I say adding the comma QA at the end of a sentence um qua at the end of the sentence what the hell does that mean uh it's hard to say but you pick it up by analogy you sort of sense when it makes
好笑，因为听上去像是他们在试图显得老练一点。他们确实是在试图显得老练，他们是在够一点点超出自己理解范围的东西，而他们会用错——我是说在成年人看来是用错了；也许按他们自己对这个词的理解，用得还挺准的。不管怎样，慢慢地随着时间推移，大家或多或少会达成一种共识：到底什么样的情境才恰当地唤起这个词。我记得很久以前，法语里有几个词，我用起来大概跟 Talia 一样热情。如果这里有法语母语者，或者非母语但热爱法语的人，你们大概会明白我在说什么——如果我说，在句尾加上一个 quoi，句子末尾的 quoi，这他妈到底是什么意思？很难说，但你会靠类比学会。你会隐隐感觉到什么时候在句尾加这个 quoi 是说得通的。如果你去看《麦田里的
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sense to put this qua at the end um if you look in if you read catcher in the Ry I know that's an old novel but it's still it's one of my but and one of my favorite novels uh I mean is that a butt situation it's an old novel but it's one of why am I saying but I mean does it mean that old novels are unlike likely to be good novels uh you see this very tricky um anyway uh you'll see Holden uh saying and I I don't have any examples here so I I can't quote you any but he'll say and all all over the place uh and uh what does it mean I don't know what it means but I know that it's right I can hear it and I I don't have any sense as to what means exactly but in discourse space it is really he puts it in JD Salinger puts it in at the right spots um it really works and it mean it conveys something but what it conveys I don't know another phrase in French that I loved acquiring uh many many years ago was is is just an adverb normal now you might think that just means normal in English but it doesn't
守望者》——我知道那是本老小说，but 它还是我最喜欢的小说之一。我是说，这算 but 的情境吗？它是本老小说，but 它是我最喜欢的之一——我为什么要说 but？难道这意味着老小说不太可能是好小说吗？你看，这非常微妙。总之，你会看到霍尔顿说 and all——我这儿没带例子，所以没法给你们引原文——但他满篇都在说 and all。那它是什么意思？我不知道它什么意思，but 我知道它是对的，我能听出来。我完全说不出它到底是什么意思，但在话语空间里，它真的……他放得——J.D. 塞林格把它放在了正确的位置上。它真的起作用了，它传达了某种东西，但传达的到底是什么，我不知道。另一个我很喜欢学到的法语说法，很多很多年前，是一个副词 normalement。你可能以为它就是英语里的 normally，但不是，
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it means something different from normally so I have a few examples here I don't want to go into French too much because that would throw us off but I mean if you say uh somebody is going home and you say that means sort of like hopefully he's gotten home by now so normal in that sense means hopefully or and that means um it sounds like it means normally we're going to run uh this evening at 7 but you wouldn't say that in English what it means is something like unless we change our plans um or that sounds like it means normally we were supposed to spend two weeks in bran but it doesn't mean normally it means if there hadn't been a hitch um and uh and and so when you catch on to this kind of the usage which no dictionary will tell you no native speaker will tell you no course will tell you nothing will tell you you catch on to it because you hear it in the speech of people around you and you hear the circumstances that evoke it and the way it is used it's an by analogy you start finding that you're you yourself
它的意思跟 normally 不一样。我这儿有几个例子。我不想在法语上讲太多，因为那会跑题，但我是说，如果有人正在回家路上，你说 normalement il est rentré，那意思有点像「但愿他这会儿已经到家了」。所以 normalement 在那种情况下意思是「但愿」。再比如 normalement on court ce soir à sept heures，听起来像是「我们通常晚上7点跑步」，但你在英语里不会那么说。它的意思其实是「除非我们改计划」。再比如 normalement on devait passer deux semaines à…… 听起来像是「我们通常要在布列塔尼待两周」，但它不是「通常」的意思，它的意思是「要是没出岔子的话」。所以当你领会到这类用法的时候——没有任何词典会告诉你，没有任何母语者会告诉你，没有任何课程会告诉你，什么都不会告诉你。你之所以能领会，是因为你在周围人的话里听到了它，你听到了唤起它的那些情境，以及它被使用的方式。靠类比，你会开始发现，你自己会在恰好合适的时刻感到这个词自动浮现在脑海里，那种感觉非常
06定冠词 the 的微妙选择
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are feeling it come to your mind at just the right times and it feels very exciting it's a marvelous moment when this phrase that you can't even Define its meaning is coming to you automatically unbidden magically and um and that's a very exciting thing is what was happening to Talia with P she was all excited I mean she wasn't aware perhaps that that was that she was excited about it but she was so these are kinds of examples now I want to say that every word choice is uh is is represents is a category and represents analogy making of the sort that I'm making so you might get skeptical and say well what about you know the most functional words I mean I understand that book is a category and that um you know even but but what about the and uh so I want to argue that the is the name of a category as well and um I wrote up a bunch of sentences today and I won't spend too much time on them but just a little it because I thought I I was trying to show how subtle it is to know when to use the and when not to and
令人兴奋。这是个奇妙的时刻：一个你连它的意思都定义不出来的说法，竟然自动地、不召自来地、像变魔术一样浮现在你脑子里。这是件非常令人兴奋的事，而这正是 Talia 用 par contre 时发生的事，她特别兴奋。我是说，她可能并没有意识到自己在为这个兴奋，但她确实是。所以这就是一些例子。现在我想说的是，每一次选词都代表着一个范畴，代表着我一直在说的那种类比制造。所以你们可能会起疑，说，那那些最功能性的词呢？我是说，我能理解 book 是个范畴，甚至 but 也是，可 the 呢？所以我想论证的是，the 也是一个范畴的名称。我今天写了一堆句子，我不会在上面花太多时间，就讲一点点，因为我想展示的是，知道什么时候用 the、什么时候不用，这有多微妙。我
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I um I I hope this set of examples at least provokes you me you may not be totally convinced by what I say here but I I was having some fun with it and so again if you want to email me with variations on this theme that'll be fine so it has to do with the two phrases go to school and go to the school and what what circumstances evoke go to school and what circumstances evoke go to the school in the mind of a native speaker of American English and I tried to find a bunch of examples and to show how incredibly subtle it is and how it's again shaded and graded I'm not saying there's an exactly right answer in every case but I think that we would all say it's wrong to say to a kid um uh you have to go to school go to the school today that would I think you you would say it's wrong if if you meant uh the ordinary meaning go to school you have to go to school today um so if a kid says I have to go to school to pick up my backpack that's a little different because that is more the place where the
希望这组例子至少能引发你们一点思考。你们未必会被我这里说的完全说服，但我玩得挺开心的。所以还是那句话，如果你想就这个主题的各种变体给我发邮件，那再好不过。这跟两个短语有关：go to school 和 go to theschool。在一个美国英语母语者心里，什么样的情境唤起 go to school，什么样的情境唤起 go to the school？我试着找了一堆例子，来说明这有多么难以置信地微妙，而且它同样是有浓淡、有层次的。我不是说每种情况都有一个完全正确的答案，但我想我们都会说，对一个孩子说「你今天得 go to the school」是不对的。我想你会说这是错的，如果你想表达的是通常那个意思——你今天得去上学。那如果一个孩子说「我得去学校拿我的书包」，这就有点不一样了，因为那更多是指那个地方，
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school where the backpack is and it's not exactly going to school like to attend classes but I think it was still still be okay now what if I as uh the father of a child were saying something like this would I say I think I would say the in this case I have to go to the school to meet with the PTA members I think I would say the there um what if it were I were talking to my kid who was going to meet friends after school I think I would say you have to go to school to meet your friends this afternoon you have to go to school to meet your friend I think I could say of course you have to go to the school but I think it wouldn't be as spontaneous um you have to go to school to pick up your gymsuit um if I were talking to um some other parent I though I think I would say you have to go to the school to pick up your kids' tickets um if I were talking to my kid I would say you have to go I think I would say you have to go to the school to buy the tickets for the musical and then here are some more you
书包所在的那个学校，而不完全是去上学、去上课。不过我觉得说 school 还是可以的。那如果我作为一个孩子的父亲说这样的话呢？我想我在这种情况下会说 the：我得去 the school 跟家长教师联合会的成员开会。我想这里我会说 the。那如果我是在跟我孩子说话，他放学后要去见朋友呢？我想我会说：你今天下午得 go to school 去见你的朋友。你得 go to school 去见你朋友。我想我当然也可以说 go to the school，但我觉得那不会那么自然而然。「你得 go to school 去拿你的体操服」。那如果我是在跟别的家长说话，我想我会说：你得 go to the school 去拿你孩子的票。如果我是在跟我自己孩子说，我想我会说：你得 go to the school 去买音乐剧的票。下面还有几个：你
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have to go to the school and then oh this one I think everybody would agree that the V is needed uh because you're giving somebody directions you have to go to the school and then turn left you wouldn't say you have to go to school and then turn left uh so here's another one you uh again blurry you you have to go to the school to get the parking permit I thought you had to go to the county courthouse um anyway my point is is not to concentrate on exactly these examples obviously my point is that uh the the word the' is selected by some subtle cogn set of cognitive actions that are are allowing you to understand the degree to which the the word is needed in that situation for Clear communication and um and how it would its choice would if you made the S of speak the wrong choice that is the non-native speaker Choice it might confuse a native a native speaker um it would be pretty hard for a non-native speaker especially my wife Chinese is very very distant from English it would be very hard for her to pick up this
得 go to the school 然后——哦，这一个我想大家都会同意必须要有 the，因为你是在给别人指路：你得 go to the school 然后左转。你不会说 go to school 然后左转。再来一个，同样很模糊：你得 go to the school 去办停车证。我还以为得去县法院办呢。总之，我的重点显然不是纠结这些具体例子，我的重点是：the这个词是由某一套微妙的认知活动挑选出来的，这些活动让你明白，在那个情境下为了清晰地交流，这个词有多大程度上是必要的，以及如果你选错了——也就是做出非母语者的那种选择——它可能会让母语者困惑。对一个非母语者来说，这是相当难的。讲者，尤其是我太太，中文和英文差得非常非常远，她要学会这种东西会很难
07感叹词、谚语与习语命名的情境
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kind of thing um uh this kind of subtle usage but we all pick it up as native speakers when we're rather young and we polish our Mastery of it as we go on through life so uh I'm not going to try to convince you any longer uh about the or articles uh like uh and so forth I mean I it's sort of gotten the idea of cross now what I'd like to to do is is to talk also about things that are kind of like interjections um so for example there are lots of phrases that come up in let's say television uh comedy things I uh or advertising that become sort of memes and they spread throughout the culture so one that may not be all that current but one that I picked up some years ago and that I think you all know is uh hello you know and I you know what it means right it means something like you what are you talking about you're off your Walker how can you say such a dumb thing uh hello uh but you have to say it with the right intonation and sort of the same the right sound of doubt in your voice uh and when you do it it gets across
这种微妙的用法，但我们作为母语者在很小的时候就都学会了，而且随着人生的推进，我们会不断打磨对它的掌握。所以呃，我不打算再试图说服各位关于……或者冠词之类的了，我的意思是，我觉得这个意思大致已经传达到了。现在我想做的是，谈谈另外一类东西，有点像感叹词。比如说，有很多说法出现在，比方说电视上的呃喜剧节目里，或者广告里，它们变成了某种梗，然后在整个文化里传播开来。有一个可能不算特别新了，但我是几年前学到的，我想大家都知道，就是那句 hello，你知道我的意思吧，你知道它是什么意思，对吧？它大概是说，你在说什么呀？你是不是脑子不清楚了？你怎么能说出这么蠢的话？呃，hello。但你得用对语调，还得在声音里带上那种恰到好处的怀疑感呃，当你这么说的时候，某种特定的意思就非常清楚地传达出去了。而且，你知道，我一直反复回到这个想法上
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very clearly a certain kind of meaning and there are you know I keep on coming back to this idea uh that I want to drill into your head which is there are hello situations there are situations that evoke that those situations belong to a category again it's not got you know god-given boundaries that are precise I'm not saying that uh I'm simply saying that there are certain category there are certain moments certain situations where I could very it just pops to my mind automatically without even thinking uh and uh those are really strong members of the category and uh and I and my friend David Moser pointed out another example of this kind of thing which I always like um uh it's again an intonation probably what kinds of situations evoke that probably kind of thing uh with that tone attached to the word um again it's a category it's a it's it maybe a subcategory I don't know if it is but it might be a subcategory of situations that would evoke the word probably I I I suspect it's not exactly
我想把它敲进各位脑子里的是：存在着 hello 情境，存在着能唤起那个词的情境，那些情境属于一个范畴。再说一次，它并没有那种天赐的、精确的边界，我不是这个意思。我只是说存在某些范畴，存在某些时刻、某些情境，在那些情境下我会非常……它就自动地蹦进我脑子里，甚至都不用想。呃，那些就是这个范畴里非常强的成员。而且我……我的朋友 David Moser 还指出了另一个这类的例子，我一直很喜欢。呃，这同样是个语调问题「probably」，什么样的情境会唤起那个「probably」呢？呃，就是给这个词带上那种语气。呃，这同样是一个范畴，它是……也许是个子范畴，我不确定它是不是，但它可能是一个子范畴，属于那些会唤起「probably」这个词的情境。我……我猜想它并不完全是，呃，但不管怎样，呃，这是件挺有意思的事
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but uh but in any case uh it's uh it's an interesting thing I've never been able to put my finger on it uh but I every once in a while I hear somebody saying it or I myself say it and then I try to write it down and and and to to figure out why is it why was that particular uh circum circumstance one that evoked that word okay now I've I've covered lots of linguistic examples um that involve essentially choices of one word or perhaps two words I may have used some others I don't remember but I want to now go on to uh situations that uh whose name or categories whose names they they still have linguistic names but the linguistic names are considerably longer phrases so we'll we have phrases uh we have situations that are very naturally labeled by the label kill two birds with one stone um and uh I use that phrase all the time I mean for example in coming out here I could say I was going to gole and I was coming to Stanford uh on this trip I'm killing two birds with one stone okay I had two I had two visits to
我一直没能说清楚它到底是什么，呃，但我时不时会听到有人这么说，或者我自己这么说然后我就试着把它记下来，然后弄明白，为什么？为什么那个特定的情形会唤起那个词？好，现在我已经讲了很多语言学上的例子，呃，基本上都涉及一个词的选择，或者可能两个词。我可能也用过别的例子，我不记得了。但我现在想接着讲，呃，那些情境，呃，它们的名称，或者说那些范畴，它们的名称仍然是语言学上的名称，但那些语言学名称是长得多的短语。所以我们会有短语，呃，我们会有一些情境，它们非常自然地被贴上这样的标签：「一石二鸟」呃，我一直在用这个说法。比方说，这次出来，我可以说我本来要去谷歌然后这趟行程我又要来斯坦福，呃，我这是一石二鸟。好，我有两个……我要拜访两个
47:48
two different institutions out here in uh the Bay Area killing two birds with one stone um so there are I mean you you probably use it all the time yourself and uh so you know how that comes to mind spontaneously um and uh so that's a a name of a category that you all have and uh it's a very standard category um Proverbs uh sometimes are are well all Proverbs are names of categories but some Proverbs are are very uh very interesting uh subtle subtle they name subtle categories so there are lots of cases where in the last few years I found myself saying well you're shutting the Barn Door after the horse is out um you know that phrase I mean I don't know if everybody knows that phrase but it is a standard phrase and it's evoked by certain kinds of situations those situations are members of the shut the horse after the barn is shut the Barn Door after the horse is out situations um and uh once burned twice shy I say that quite often um and uh so we have let me see if I have I have some others some of other examples of this
不同的机构，都在这边的湾区，一石二鸟。嗯，所以有……我是说，你们自己大概也一直在用它，呃，所以你知道那是怎么自发地浮现在脑子里的。嗯，呃，所以这就是一个范畴的名称，你们都有这个范畴，呃，而且这是个非常标准的范畴。嗯，谚语，呃，有时候是……好吧，所有谚语都是范畴的名称，但有些谚语非常呃，非常有意思，很微妙，很微妙，它们命名的是微妙的范畴。所以有很多情况，在过去这几年里，我发现自己会说：你这是马都跑了才去关马厩门啊。嗯你知道那个说法吧，我不确定是不是人人都知道那个说法，但它是个标准说法，而且它会被某几类情境唤起。那些情境就是「马跑了才关马厩门」这个范畴的成员这类情境。嗯，还有呃，一朝被蛇咬，十年怕井绳，这句我说得相当多。嗯，呃，所以我们有……我看看我有没有……我还有一些别的，这类的其他一些例子。嗯，对了，本末倒置，或者有几个我挺喜欢的
49:20
kind of thing um yeah put the cart in front of the horse or a couple that I like are um that's uh that tail is wagging the dog you know the case of the tail wagging the dog and again these are situations that you recognize where something that seems very small seems to be taking an inordinately large controlling role in a situation uh it it shouldn't be the controller but it somehow is and I you know I I had to explain this pretty uh many times and use lots of examples to Emanuel because in French that exact idiom or that notion doesn't exist there isn't an idiom that corresponds to the tail wagging the dog and so I had to give him Bunches of examples before he caught on another example that also was similar was um was uh the left hand doesn't know what the right hand is doing uh which is something that comes about situations in organizations where they have parts and uh one division of the organization doesn't isn't isn't aware of or is doing something contradictory to another part of the organization and
是嗯，那个呃，那是尾巴在摇狗，你知道那种情况，尾巴摇狗。再说一次，这些是你能认出来的情境：某个看上去很小的东西，似乎在一个局面里占据了大得不成比例的主导地位，呃，它本不该是那个主导者，但不知怎么就成了。而且我，你知道，我不得不解释了呃很多次，还举了很多例子给 Emanuel 听，因为在法语里那个说法，或者说那个概念，并不存在。没有一个惯用语对应「尾巴摇狗」，所以我不得不给他举一大堆例子，他才慢慢领会。另一个类似的例子是嗯，是呃，左手不知道右手在做什么。呃，这说的是这样一种情况：在有很多部门的组织里，呃，组织的一个部门并不……没有意识到，或者正在做着与组织另一个部门相矛盾的事情。于是
50:41
so we we see these situations this phrase comes to mind it's clearly a category and how do we what what are we doing when we assign that situation to that category well we're obviously making an analogy now are we making an analogy to actually right hands and left hands knowing things no we're not there right hands don't know anything and left hands don't know anything so we can't be literally making an analogy to situations where the right hand doesn't know what the left hand is doing we're making analogies to other instances where we've heard the phrase used um where uh there have been some canonical instance when we were 14 years old when we heard it and it struck us um and we might have savored it or delighted in it and it registered in our mind uh maybe unconsciously but it registered in our mind and that uh that moment planted the seed then for a whole host of analogies that would be made later in life and they would grow the the concept would grow and grow and become more and more flexible until it
我们看到这些情境，这个说法就浮现在脑海里。它显然是个范畴。那么我们……当我们把某个情境归入那个范畴时，我们究竟在做什么呢？嗯，我们显然是在打一个类比。那么，我们是在跟真正的右手和左手知不知道什么打类比吗？不是，不是的。右手什么都不知道，左手也什么都不知道。所以我们不可能是在字面上跟那些右手不知道左手在做什么的情境打类比。我们是在跟我们听过这个说法被使用的其他实例打类比，呃，在那些场合里，呃，曾有过某个典范性的实例，在我们十四岁的时候，我们听到了它，它打动了我们。嗯，我们可能细细品味过它，或者觉得它很妙，于是它就登记进了我们的脑子里，呃，也许是无意识地，但它登记进了我们脑子里。呃，那个……那个时刻就此埋下了种子，为日后一整片类比的丛林埋下了种子，这些类比会在人生后来的岁月里不断产生，它们会生长，那个……那个概念会不断生长、生长，变得越来越灵活，直到
08无标签范畴：丹尼在大峡谷
51:54
was this concept this label could be applied to situations of many many sorts but it's it is not handed to you on a silver platter so to speak um and uh so you have to acquire it over time and uh Emmanuel was the perfect example of this I had to give him many examples of the left hand doesn't know what the right hand is doing until he he sort of caught on now as a last category of sorry well category of categories I guess is it is a last category but I want to talk about ones that don't really have linguistic labels because up until now I've just been talking about categories that are that either are n are labeled by nouns by verbs by conjunctions by adverbs uh or by phrases or by well idioms idiomatic phrases but I'd like to um come to categor that are um that that have no linguistic label I mean you can always describe them using words but they don't have a standard linguistic label either in either in general in the society or even for yourself as a private individual they don't have labels so in in this
这个概念、这个标签可以被应用到形形色色、各式各样的情境上。但它并不是被人放在银盘子上端到你面前的，可以这么说。嗯，呃，所以你必须随着时间去习得它。呃，Emmanuel 就是这方面的完美例子我不得不给他举很多「左手不知道右手在做什么」的例子，他才算是领会了。那么，作为最后一个范畴——抱歉，是范畴的范畴，我想是吧——它确实是最后一个范畴，但我想谈谈那些并没有真正的语言标签的范畴。因为到目前为止，我一直在谈的都是那些要么是……要么是由名词、由动词、由连词、由副词，呃，或者由短语，或者由，嗯，惯用语、习惯用语来标记的范畴。但我想，嗯，谈谈那些，嗯，那些没有语言标签的范畴。我是说，你总是可以用词语去描述它们，但它们并没有一个标准的语言标签，无论是在整个社会层面上，还是哪怕对你自己作为一个个人来说，它们都没有标签。所以在这本书里，顺便说一句，我今天讲的很多想法
53:17
book and by the way many of the ideas that I'm talking about today are in this book um in this book we talk a lot about a particular category which I now have a label for but we have to you have to understand that for years there was no label for it now it has become a labeled category and I'll even give you the label right now but it was not labeled when it first happened of course and that is uh the label is Dany at the Grand Canyon and uh and this was when my son Dany was one year old and 3 months and uh we were driving across the country to come out to California from Indiana and we were making a tour of my wife Carol and I were were making a uh uh tour of certain national parks um and among which was the Grand Canyon and so when we were at the edge of the Grand Canyon one afternoon uh Dany was sitting cross-legged on the ground uh looking at ants and I found this somewhat iron because here we were at the edge of this incredibly large Chasm uh by the way I I'll interrupt I want to tell you something amusing Dany
都在这本书里。嗯，在这本书里我���大量讨论了一个特定的范畴，我现在有一个标签，但我们必须——你必须明白，多年来它根本没有名字，而现在它已经变成了一个有标签的类别了，我现在就可以把这个标签告诉你，当然，它最初发生的时候是没有标签的，那就是，呃，这个标签叫「丹尼在大峡谷」，呃，那是我儿子丹尼一岁零三个月的时候，呃，当时我们正开车横穿全国，从印第安纳来加州，我们顺路游览了，我和我妻子卡罗尔，我们，呃，呃，游览了几个国家公园，嗯，其中就包括大峡谷，于是有一天下午，我们站在大峡谷边上，呃，丹尼盘腿坐在地上，呃，在看蚂蚁，我觉得这有点儿讽刺，因为我们当时就站在这么一个大得难以置信的深渊边上，呃，顺便说一句，我打断一下，我想跟你们讲件有意思的事，丹尼现在二十几了，他现在二十五，快二十六了，他很喜欢野外，他
54:37
is now 20 whatever he is 25 almost 26 and he loves the Wilderness and he recently had a job in Arizona um where he was working and he he was very close to the Grand Canyon who made sure that his friend Charles took a photograph of him sitting at the edge of the Grand Canyon looking at some so I have that up in my study but um but anyway uh so Danny at the Grand Canyon uh was this this odd situation of of of a child so young that he wasn't able he wouldn't have been able I mean if I had said Danny look at the Grand Canyon it would have been it would have just been colors on his retina he wasn't old enough to have the concept of even any distance at all up you know like a mile even if if it were you know inside in in a town but let alone out in space and vertical Mile and 15 mil across and 200 miles long I mean that those Concepts were not available to him and his visual system was not built to recognize things I mean at that age it was going to acquire the ability to recognize things that were very far away and to estimate
最近在亚利桑那有份工作，嗯，他在那儿工作，离大峡谷非常近，他特意让他朋友查尔斯给他拍了张照片，照片里他坐在大峡谷边上低头看着什么，我把那张照片挂在我书房里，不过，嗯，不过总之，呃，「丹尼在大峡谷」就是这么一个奇特的情形：一个孩子小到还没有能力，他根本不可能——我是说，如果我当时说「丹尼，看大峡谷」，那对他来说也只会是视网膜上的一片颜色，他还没有大到能理解「距离」这个概念，哪怕是一英里这样的距离，就算是在城里，在室内，都不行，更别说在野外的空间里了，还是垂直一英里深、横跨十五英里、绵延两百英里长，我是说，那些概念对他来说根本不存在，而且他的视觉系统当时也还没发育到能识别那些东西，我是说，在那个年纪，他将来是会获得识别极远处物体、估计
55:47
distances but but you know at a one age one nothing like that existed and so it was perfectly sensible uh for him but as as his father I I you know I I found it amusing nonetheless I mean it was probably inappropriate of me to find it amaz but I did well um it registered in my mind but I didn't give it a name it was just a memory it was just a fact something that had once happened but then about see about I I guess it was in 2005 so this would been 16 years later um uh group of us were in in Egypt uh and we were taking a boat down the Nile or up the Nile whichever it might be and we uh we came to the Temple of Carnac and which is you know huge uh pillars uh and uh uh I don't know what they're made of but anyway lots and lots of huge impressive pillars with you know thousands of years of History behind them and uh at one point our friend dick who was an adult reached down to the ground and picked up a bottle cap and he was making a bottle cap collection of bottle caps only in Egypt just Egyptian
距离的能力的，可是，可是你知道，在一岁的时候，这些都还不存在，所以对他来说这完全合情合理，但作为作为他父亲，我，你知道，我还是觉得挺好笑的，我是说，我觉得这事好笑可能不太合适，但我确实觉得好笑，嗯，这件事记在了我脑子里，但我没有给它起名字，它只是一段回忆，只是一个事实，一件曾经发生过的事，可是后来，大概，我想想，大概我猜是在2005年吧，那就是十六年之后了，嗯，呃，我们一群人在埃及，呃，我们坐船沿尼罗河而下，或者是逆流而上，反正随便哪个方向，然后我们，呃，我们到了卡纳克神庙，那儿你知道，有巨大的，呃，柱子，呃，还有，呃，呃，我也不知道那些柱子是什么材质的，反正就是一根接一根的巨型石柱，非常壮观，你知道，背后是几千年的历史，然后，呃，有那么一刻，我们的朋友迪克——他是个成年人——弯腰从地上捡起一个瓶盖，他当时在收集瓶盖，只收集埃及的瓶盖，就只要埃及的
57:12
bottle caps and he saw one and he picked it up and all of a sudden out of nowhere a spontaneously uh my memory came of Danny at the Grand Canyon now obvious ly this was uh a reminding by analogy I mean I don't need to spell it out but I will a little bit you know carac the big towers was the Grand Canyon the big hole um dick was Danny the bottle cap where was the ants um and I probably could spell out some other things as well but but I mean it's self-evident the basic idea of this analy um and uh so all at once these two event were sort of superimposed on each other by my unconscious mind which made it now conscious and I wasn't aware at the time that I was creating a category that I had begun with a Singleton which was Danny at the Grand Canyon and had spread it out I was just saying oh this oh it's reminds me of Danny at the Grand Canyon that's all I said but the moment I said that then my my conscious mind started saying oh yes that means this is an analogy which means the two are superimposed which means I'm beginning
瓶盖，他看见一个就把它捡了起来，突然之间，毫无来由地，自发地，呃，我脑子里就浮现出了「丹尼在大峡谷」的记忆，很显然，这是一次基于类比的联想提取，我是说，其实不用我明说，但我还是稍微说一下，你知道，卡纳克那些大柱子对应的是大峡谷那个大坑，嗯，迪克对应的是丹尼，瓶盖对应的是蚂蚁，嗯，我大概还能再对应出一些别的东西，不过，不过我是说，这个类比的基本思路是不言而喻的，嗯，呃，于是一下子，这两件事就被我的无意识心智叠加在了一起，而这也让它变成了有意识的，而我当时并没有意识到，我是在创建一个类别，一个我最初以「单元素」起头的类别，是丹尼在大峡谷那张照片，然后把它摊开了，我当时只是说，噢，这个，噢，这让我想起丹尼在大峡谷我说的就只有这些，但就在我说出口的那一刻，我的意识开始说，噢对，这意味着这是一个类比也就是说这两者被叠加在了一起，也就是说我开始形成一个范畴，也就是说其实
58:27
to make a category which means actually I already had a category when I had only one member it was just a category that had one member and now it's starting to blur out and at this point now this category has become an explicit category in my mind now it has a name and it includes all sorts of things it includes a mosquito biting Albert Einstein uh it it includes me and Emmanuel uh in Paris working on our book instead of going to the louv you know or doing all the standard tourist things that you would do in Paris it's sort of like what are we doing we're we're paying attention to only this tiny little teeny thing instead of enjoying the Magnificent City of Paris um and and and on and on and and eventually it has come to mean to to me to mean just the idea that uh you focus on what you are interested in uh and what you're capable of focusing on and you ignore a huge amount of stuff that other people would think of as gems um and and so it it's kind of become a very very broad category now which has
在我只有一个成员的时候，我就已经有一个范畴了，只不过那是一个只有一个成员的范畴，而现在它开始变得模糊，而此时此刻，这个类别在我脑海里已经变成了一个明确的类别，它有了名字，而且它包含各种各样的东西，包括一只蚊子叮咬阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦，呃，也包括我和 Emmanuel 在巴黎埋头写我们的书，而不是去卢浮宫，你知道的，或者去做那些你在巴黎会做的常规游客活动那种感觉就像，我们在干嘛呢？我们只顾着关注这么一个微不足道的小东西而不是去享受巴黎这座宏伟的城市，嗯，然后就这样一直下去，最终它对我来说慢慢变成了对我来说就是这样一个想法：你专注于你感兴趣的东西，专注于你有能力去关注的东西，然后你忽略掉一大堆其他人会觉得是珍宝的东西，嗯，所以它其实已经变成了一个非常非常宽泛的范畴，这个范畴的名字就叫「丹尼在大峡谷」，嗯，所以这大致就是范畴
09结论：范畴化与类比是一体两面
59:34
the name Danny at the Grand Canyon um and so this is sort of how uh categories grow uh and how they are retrieved by analogy and that's sort of the theme of of this book that categorization and analogy making are the are flip sides of the very same mental process they're really two ways of talking about the same thing and uh I I'd like to finish up with just one kind of memory uh of myself uh at when I was U I don't know in my early 20s uh I remember we drove around um we drove around uh Italy um and I love the type faces I will always remember my extreme love of the VAR iety of type faces and for each letter of the alphabet there were so many incredibly new uh inventive ways of realizing let's say the letter A or the letter b or the letter q or whatever letter you want and I was I was in love with all the different well not the members themselves but the the vast the the very vast variety of members of the categories a through z they were I was really thrilled by that and it's it's something that I still do love and as a
是如何生长的，以及它们是如何通过类比被提取出来的，而这差不多就是这本书的主题：范畴化和类比其实是同一个心理过程的一体两面，它们真的只是在用两种方式谈论同一件事。嗯，我想用一段回忆来结束，一段关于我自己的回忆，那时候我，我不知道二十出头的时候，我记得我们开着车，我们开着车在意大利转，我特别喜欢那些字体，我永远都会记得我当时极度痴迷于字体的多样性，字母表里的每一个字母，都有那么多令人惊叹的、新颖而富有创意的方式来呈现，比方说字母 A，或者字母 b，或者字母 q，随便哪个字母都行，我当时爱上了所有不同的，嗯，不是那些成员本身，而是那种庞大的、极其庞大的、从 a 到 z 这些范畴的成员的多样性，我当时真的为此激动不已，而且这也是我至今依然热爱的东西，事实上，这一点体现在
61:01
matter of fact it's evidenced by the cover of this book where you can see several A's uh superimposed some of which are really very wild most wild one is the pink one which is belongs to a type face called Magnificat um but um my point is that since then I have always been fascinated by categories but I would say that that um today my fascination with categories is a little bit different from my Fascination back then uh now I'm fascinated by the amazing variety of categories that exist the strange kinds of categories that we use so unconsciously so spontaneously many of which have labels um many of which do not Danny at the Grand Canyon started out unlabeled and uh and uh has now acquired a label but many of our Concepts uh each person has their own memories that they have stocked over their lifetime and that are capable of being evoked by situations but which don't have any labels or linguistic labels so I just you know now the every culture but I think American culture very strongly has has a tendency to just
这本书的封面上，你能看到好几个 A 叠印在一起，其中有些真的非常狂野，最狂野的那个是粉色的那个，它来自一款叫 Magnificat 的字体，不过，我想说的是，从那时起我就一直着迷于范畴，但我得说，如今我对范畴的着迷跟当年那种着迷有点不一样了，现在让我着迷的是，存在着如此惊人多样的范畴，还有那些我们如此无意识地、如此自发地使用的奇特范畴，其中很多是有标签的，也有很多是没有的，丹尼在大峡谷那件事一开始是没有标签的，而现在它获得了一个标签，但我们的许多概念，每个人都有自己一生中积累下来的记忆，这些记忆能够被各种情境唤起，但它们并没有任何标签，或者说语言上的标签，所以我，你知道，现在每一种文化，但我认为美国文化尤其强烈地有这样一种倾向，就是
62:28
like Talia was very excited by the New Concept or uh she she was very excited by that our our culture as a whole is excited by the creation of new categories it lives by the creation of new categories and we have a long list of recent categories in the book and I just read you a handful of them and I think you'll see why it's fun to collect these things and to see how rich they are U here positive and negative feedback Vicious Circle self-fulfilling prophecy famous for being famous backlash supply and demand um I'm just going to skip down here internet web surfing upload download video game viral video virtual reality chat room uh data mining I'll skip around a little bit more here uh uh okay there are your funny ones uh Hail Mary pass sudden death play off uh bungee jumping make an end run around someone ultra marathon pole dancing speed dating multitasking brainstorming name dropping channel surfing soap opera chick flick uh and sound bite buzzword eye candy fast food frequent flyer miles
像塔莉娅刚才对那个新概念特别兴奋一样，或者说，她对那个特别兴奋，我们整个文化都对创造新范畴感到兴奋，它就靠创造新范畴而存在，我们有一长串近期出现的范畴，就在书里，我刚才只给你们念了其中一小部分，我想你们会明白为什么收集这些东西这么有意思，也会看到它们有多丰富。这里是「正反馈」和「负反馈」、「恶性循环」、「自我实现的预言」、「因出名而出名」、「反弹效应」、「供求关系」，嗯，我往下跳一点这儿：「互联网」、「网上冲浪」、「上传」、「下载」、「电子游戏」、「病毒式视频」、「虚拟现实」、「聊天室」，呃，「数据挖掘」。我再往下跳一跳，呃，呃好，这些是有趣的那些：呃「万福玛利亚长传」、「猝死加时赛」、季后赛，呃「蹦极」、「绕过某人做迂回进攻」、「超级马拉松」、「钢管舞」、「闪电约会」、「多任务处理」、「头脑风暴」、「抬名人身价」、「换台冲浪」、「肥皂剧」、「妹子电影」，呃还有「金句片段」、「流行语」、「养眼花瓶」、「快餐」、「常旅客里程」、「风寒指数」，呃「过山车」、「内部
63:58
windchill factor uh roller coaster in joke Outsource downsize upgrade fractal shape breast implant Barbie doll Trophy Wife surrogate mother first lady worst case scenario it never stops these are all categories and it's it's I I rejoice in it and I find it absolutely astounding and and it is what makes us different from all other animals because other animals although they can acquire and extend their repertoire of categories they cannot do it the way we do it snowballing and snowballing and building and building and building and building that is what makes us so unique it is the the the way in which we continue to AC creete categories to our set of categories from the moment we're born till the the moment we die and I rejoice in that and I find it fantastic thank
笑话」、「外包」、「裁员」、「升级」、「分形形状」、「隆胸」、「芭比娃娃」、「花瓶妻子」、「代孕母亲」、「第一夫人」、「最坏情况设想」——这永远没完。这些全都是范畴，而这，这，我为此欢欣鼓舞，我觉得这绝对令人惊叹，而且，而且正是这一点让我们区别于所有其他动物。因为其他动物虽然也能获得并扩展它们的范畴库，但它们没法像我们这样做——像滚雪球一样越滚越大，不断地累积、累积、累积、累积。这就是我们如此独特的原因，就在于我们不断地把新的范畴累积到我们已有的范畴集合中，从我们出生的那一刻，直到我们死去的那一刻。我为此欢欣鼓舞，我觉得这太奇妙了。谢谢
10问答：话语空间与智能的定义
65:16
you now I know some people want to leave and that is uh we should let them leave give them a minute or so but uh I was told to ask people who wish to pose questions to use one of the two microphones uh in the aisles so that we can get your questions uh recorded So I I'll just uh I guess people can leave while we're taking the questions yeah go ahead thank you for a very stimulating talk uh I have a lot of questions but I'm going to limit just a one yeah so you've mentioned you mentioned the word discourse space discourse space yeah because uh in that kind of strikes me as as a mathematician you know in the in the more logical world you have these sentences and they're supposed to be about say models and so I was wondering you know can you maybe expand on this idea of what you know a discourse space is and how um these these categories that you're talking about sort of more apply to discourse space rather than just set well let's see if I can say it very I don't know if I can say it terribly well
大家。我知道有些人想先走，那个，呃，我们应该让他们走，给他们一分钟左右。不过呃，我被告知要请想提问的人使用过道里那两个麦克风中的一个，这样我们才能把你们的问题录下来。所以我我就，呃，我想大家可以在提问的时候陆续离场。好，请讲。谢谢你这场非常有启发的演讲，呃，我有很多问题，但我只问一个。嗯，你提到过，你提到了「话语空间」这个词，话语空间，因为呃，那个让我作为一个数学家感觉挺特别的，你知道，在更偏逻辑的那个世界里，你有这些句子，而它们应该是关于比如说模型的。所以我想知道，你能不能再展开讲讲这个想法，就是你所说的「话语空间」到底是什么，以及嗯你讲的这些范畴为什么更适用于话语空间，而不只是嗯，我看看能不能讲清楚，我不知道我能不能讲得特别好。你们听清这个问题了吗？这个
66:22
did you hear the question was the question hearable it was really trying to define the notion of discourse space um I I guess uh things that take place in ordinary three-dimensional space are very complex I mean if I said to you sache the verb sachche what is it what is a saching uh you know it would be I could try to show you uh you know I don't know if I would do a good job of it but I I could recognize saching if I saw it reasonably well um now what about segue and let's see if I can segue into this into this uh into this thing segue is something that takes place in discourse space it's a sort of a a logical follow on um it's like there but it's but it's it's maybe they're two things that seem separate but you're trying to connect them by by some you're trying to establish a link between them that that um that maybe ordinarily there wouldn't be one but but I'm trying to segue from one idea into another idea uh if I can do it gracefully okay so that's an element of that's a thing that
问题大家听得见吗？他其实是想让我界定「话语空间」这个概念。嗯，我想呃，发生在普通三维空间里的事情是非常复杂的。我的意思是，如果我对你说 sachche 这个动词，它是什么？什么叫 saching？呃，你知道，我可以试着做给你看，呃，我不知道我能不能演示得好，但我如果看到 saching，我大概能认得出来。嗯，那么 segue（承转）呢？我们来看看我能不能就此承转到这个，到这个，呃到这件事上。segue是发生在话语空间里的东西，它是一种逻辑上的顺承。嗯，它就像是在那里，但它，但它，可能是两件看起来彼此分离的事情，而你试图通过某种方式把它们连起来，你试图在它们之间建立一种联系，那种，那种嗯，那种在通常情况下可能并不存在的联系。但，但我在试着从一个想法承转到另一个想法，呃，如果我能做得优雅的话。好，所以这就是一个元素，是发生在话语空间里的一件事。我想说，
67:33
happens in discourse space I I would say as I said earlier discourse space is the space in which of this phace of abstract events in which that are that are communicative events where we're trying to communicate to transmit some idea from ourself to somebody else and it might even be you don't even know who you're talking to that it could be discourse when I'm writing a book I'm not actually speaking to anyone but I I have an sort of a imaginary person that I'm talking to and so the discourse is the attempt at communicating an idea and there there is this sense that I have in my head that there is a kind of flow there is flow that makes things stick together that you might call it logic but it's not log IC in the sense of um you know truth preserving it's logic in the sense that it seems to make a a a seamless link between certain kinds of ideas that is a segue does but Flo in general is trying to do that and um and discourse space is the space in which those things take place I don't know how to define it other than that um
就像我刚才说的，话语空间是这样一个空间，是这类抽象事件所在的空间，那些是，那些是交流性的事件，在其中我们试图交流，试图把某个想法从我们自己传递给别人。而且甚至可能你都不知道你在跟谁说话，那也可以算是话语。当我写书的时候，我并不是真的在对某个人说话，但我心里有一个假想的对象在跟他说话。所以话语就是试图传达一个想法的努力。而我脑子里有这么一种感觉：存在着某种「流」，有一种流让事情彼此黏合起来，你可以把它叫做逻辑，但它不是那种，嗯，你知道，保真意义上的逻辑；它是这个意义上的逻辑：它似乎能在某些想法之间建立一种无缝的连接，这正是 segue 所做的事，而「流」总体上也是在试图做这件事。而且嗯，话语空间就是这些事情发生的那个空间。除此之外我不知道该怎么定义它，嗯，
68:50
it's it's the space of linguistic communication and my my point was there that I think that very often people don't what I was trying to wake people's people up to is just the idea that the word but is a perfect example of an event in discourse space using CH choosing the word but and inserting it in is an event in discourse space which it's it's the label of a situation and it's a choice of a category and uh and so that's that's what I was trying to say I I think I haven't said anything that I didn't already say but I don't know how to say it any other way that's as good job as I can do you said as a mathematician and I I can't connect it to mathematics because I don't think it's a mathematical space I might also mention since you are a mathematician that that mathematicians there is a theory of categories I mean that's an official branch of mathematics and uh but I don't think it has anything at all to do with what I'm talking about yeah hi um there's a catchphrase that mostly military officials uh
它就是语言交流的空间。而我在那里的意思是，我觉得人们常常并没有——我当时想唤醒大家注意的，就是这么一个想法：「但是」这个词就是话语空间中一个事件的完美例子。选，选择「但是」这个词并把它插进句子里，就是话语空间中的一个事件，它是对某个情境的命名标签，是一次范畴的选择。呃，所以这就是，这就是我当时想说的。我，我想我并没有说出什么我之前没说过的东西，但我不知道还能怎么换个说法说得更好，这已经是我能做到的最好了。你说你是作为一个数学家来问的，而我，我没法把它跟数学联系起来，因为我不认为它是一个数学空间。既然你是数学家，我也许还可以提一句，数学家们那里有一个「范畴论」，我是说那是数学的一个正式分支，呃，但我认为它跟我讲的东西完全没有任何关系。好，你好。嗯，有一个口头禅，主要是军方人士，呃，军方，呃，政府官员和
69:59
military uh government officials and conservatives seem to throw into their discourse that uh I've been trying to figure out what category it is it's it it annoys me but I'm not really sure why it annoys me so much but it's at the end of the day would you like to comment on that well uh I didn't connect it with any particular set of people I I have heard the phrase and I do uh I do remember hearing it and probably I've heard it spoken undoubtedly by by political people but I didn't I didn't realize that it was that it had any you know sort of association with a particular political set of people and I I haven't thought about that category but I do appreciate the example I think it's a it's a it's a very good example of one of these linguistic phrases that sound so simple but that what you're saying is that it actually has a lot of um depth associated with it and in this case part of the depth is that it contains a kind of a political undertone or subtone or I don't know what word to use which I think is is is part of what
保守派似乎老爱往他们的话里塞，呃，我一直想弄明白它属于什么范畴。它，它让我很烦，但我又不太确定为什么它这么让我烦，那就是「说到底（at the end of the day）」。你愿意评论一下吗？嗯，呃，我没有把它跟任何特定的一群人联系起来。我，我听过这个说法，我确实呃，我确实记得听过，而且很可能我听到的说话者无疑就是搞政治的人。但我，我并没有意识到它有什么，你知道，跟某个特定政治群体的关联。而且我，我没有思考过那个范畴，不过我很感谢这个例子。我觉得它是一个，它是一个，它是一个非常好的例子，属于那种听上去特别简单的语言短语，但你要说的是，它其实带有很多，嗯，深层的东西。而在这个例子里，这种深度有一部分在于它包含着某种政治意味的潜台词，或者说弦外之音，或者我不知道该用什么词——我觉得这是，这是，这是你想说的一部分。
71:14
you're saying and I think that shows the the subtlety of the phrase and and the the subtlety of the acts of analogy making that are going on in the mind of people both who use it and who hear it so but I I don't I can't comment on that phrase particularly because I never really thought about it yeah over there hi uh I would like to hear your thoughts on highly contentious categories slash what do you think about um the category of Consciousness and intelligence and uh for example whether uh like binding of Consciousness has any to do anything to do with uh how we make analogies and and identify Consciousness well is that what you're asking about Consciousness and you mentioned intelligence also well in um in my uh book in 2007 called I'm a strange loot uh I have a whole dialogue called I don't remember what it's called exactly but something like Consciousness equals thinking and um and uh there I try to argue for that idea that that uh thinking and Consciousness are are the same thing and uh and uh
我觉得这显示出这个短语的微妙之处，以及，以及那些类比行为的微妙之处，这些类比正发生在使用它的人和听到它的人的头脑中。所以，但我，我不能特别地评论那个短语，因为我从来没真正思考过它。好，那边那位。你好，呃，我想听听你对那些争议很大的范畴的看法，或者说，你怎么看嗯「意识」和「智能」这两个范畴？还有呃，比如说，呃，像意识的「捆绑」问题跟呃我们如何做类比、如何辨认意识，有没有什么关系？嗯，你问的是关于意识的问题对吧？你还提到了智能。嗯，在嗯，在我 2007 年那本叫《我是个怪圈》的书里，呃，我有一整章对话，叫什么我不记得了确实，不过大概是‘意识等于思考’这样的说法，呃，在那里我试图论证这个观点，就是说，呃思考和意识是同一回事，还有，呃，智能——嗯，并不是所有的思考都是高度智能的，不过我倒是愿意
72:35
intelligence um not all thinking is highly intelligent um but I I like to think that in if you want me to try to Define intelligence if that's what you're looking for I have a definition which which Nel and I put into this book my definition for intelligence is um it's closely related to what I said today in a certain sense that is it is the ability to put one's finger on the essence of a situation rapidly and uh that means to categorize rapidly to make analogies rapidly to find um compelling or strong analogies rapidly um and uh that's uh that's my notion of intelligence and that's let's say high quality thinking but thinking in general might be the same thing it's just maybe the the the retrieval of the categories isn't quite as efficient or isn't quite as On Target um but it is still the same mechanism and I claim that that is indistinguishable from Consciousness thank you yeah I've started to notice recently that um new technological media have enabled um like it seems to me a faster
这么认为：如果你要我试着给智能下个定义，如果你想问的是这个，我确实有一个定义就是我和 Nel 写进这本书里的那个。我对智能的定义是，嗯，它和我今天说的内容在某种意义上密切相关，那就是：它是迅速抓住一个情境之本质的能力，呃，也就是说，能迅速地进行归类，迅速地打比方、做类比，迅速地找到，嗯，有说服力的、有力的类比，嗯，呃，这就是，呃，这就是我对智能的理解。这可以说是高质量的思考，但一般意义上的思考可能也是同一回事，只不过也许，那个，那个范畴的提取没那么高效，或者没那么切中要害，嗯，但它仍然是同一套机制。而我主张，这和意识是无法区分的。谢谢。是的，我最近开始注意到嗯，新的技术媒介催生了，嗯，在我看来是一种更快的新概念创造速率，嗯
11问答：网络新语、语言规范与AI前景
73:53
rate of like creation of new Concepts um a good example is the internet on which or should should I say internet on which um I missed what internet versus internet never mind um AO i n n e r is that internet it's the t is often all lighted I see um internet internet yes anyway on the internet um people have started saying things such as um I skipped class today because Douglas hoffstead lecture yeah so I was wondering like what do you think it is about these media in which maybe it has something to do with like the fact that we're writing things down that are not intended to be spoken but then they become spoken at some point okay I have another example which I'll give you this is interesting I mean you know the what do they call them the emoticons and uh at first I really thought they were dumb and I didn't use them but by God I use them no I only use one two types well maybe even more but basically I use I use the colon followed by the right pen I use the semicolon followed by the right but they're not
一个很好的例子就是 internet（互联网），在它上面——或者我该说 Internet？在它上面，嗯——我没听清，什么，internet 和Internet？算了，嗯，i-n-n-e-r，是 internet 吗？那个 t，首字母常常是大写的。我明白了，嗯，internet，Internet，对总之，在互联网上，嗯，人们开始这么说话，比如说，嗯，‘我今天翘课了，because 侯世达（Douglas Hofstadter）的讲座。’是的，所以我想问的是，你觉得这些媒介里究竟是什么在起作用？也许这跟这样一个事实有关：我们写下来的东西本来并不是要说出口的，但后来在某个时刻它们又被说出口了。好，我也有一个例子可以讲给你听，这个挺有意思的。我是说，你知道的，那些叫什么来着，表情符号（emoticons）。呃，一开始我真觉得它们挺傻的，我也不用，但天哪，我现在真的在用。不，我只用一种、两种吧，嗯，也许还更多一点，不过基本上我用的是冒号加右括号，还有分号加右括号，但它们并不是
75:12
names of the same category they are definitely not names of the same category and uh I use a colon followed by a left parenthesis um and maybe I use one or two others I don't know um and uh and so these are these are uh examples of modern memes that the yeah the the the the the web or the inter you know various kinds of media have have brought into existence and the one that you mentioned I guess because used as a shortened form of because of sort of is that it yeah I mean I can see that this is evolving this is happening I I I'm not a party to that I don't I I I actually go the other way whenever I do you know a type of thing uh I don't use two thumbs I use one finger and I and I never use any abbreviations i I make a point of not using abbreviations uh and so um except that dot the two dots and the thing that's sort of an abbreviation but it's become it its own thing um um and uh but I see it happening all the time I agree with you I I you're probably right that there is pressure there's lots of pressure to
同一个范畴的名称，它们绝对不是同一个范畴的名称。呃，我还会用冒号加左括号，嗯，可能还会用一两个别的，我也说不清。嗯，呃，所以这些就是，这些就是，呃，现代模因的例子，是那个，对，那个，那个网络、那个互联，你知道的，各种各样的媒介催生出来的。而你提到的那个，我猜就是用 because 当作because of 的缩略形式，差不多是这样吧，是这个意思吗？是的，我是说，我能看出来这在演变，这确实在发生。我、我、我并没有参与其中，我不……我、我其实是反着来的。每当我，你知道的，打字之类的时候，呃，我不用两个大拇指，我用一根手指。而且我，我从来不用任何缩写，我，我刻意不使用缩写。呃，所以，嗯，除了那个点，那两个点，那个东西算是一种缩写，但它已经变成了它自己独立的东西。嗯，嗯，呃，不过我确实看到这种事一直在发生。我同意你的看法，我、我，你说得大概没错，确实存在压力，存在很大的压力去
76:35
create new categories and to to to sort of make communication more efficient absolutely I mean that's the nature of of communication these days it'll probably always was but it's certainly very intense I agree with you you point out how new categories enrich language but language also is being corrupted at least formal English is being corrupted for instance it is I sounds bizarre these days so what does one do does one go with the flow or does one try and fight and well your your question is very good one because I mean I I happen to be a member of the usage panel of the American Heritage dictionary I I'm I'm I I I get questionnaires from them about once a year they asked me about 50 questions and they said would do you approve of this fully you know in formal writing or in colloquial or disapprove or highly disapprove and and it's interesting I I have very strong opinions and I fully agree with you I'm not one of those people who think that that um we should just be uh descriptive I I believe in
创造新的范畴，去，去，去让沟通变得更高效。绝对是这样。我是说，这就是如今沟通的本性，也许一直都是如此，但现在肯定特别强烈。我同意你。你指出了新范畴如何丰富了语言，但语言同时也在被侵蚀，至少正式英语在被侵蚀。比如说，‘it is I’如今听起来怪得很。那么该怎么办呢？是随波逐流，还是要去抗争？嗯，你的，你的这个问题问得非常好。因为，我是说，我，我碰巧是《美国传统词典》用法委员会的成员。我，我是，我，我，我大约每年会收到他们的一份问卷，他们问我大概五十个问题，他们会说：你是否完全认可这种用法，你知道的，在正式写作中，还是只在口语中，或者你不认可，或者非常不认可。而且很有意思，我，我有非常强烈的看法，而且我完全同意你。我不是那种认为，认为，嗯，我们应该只做描写主义者的人。我，我信奉规定主义，呃，就是认为一个词确实存在一种正确的拼法
77:50
prescriptive uh the idea that that there is a correct way to spell something and I think most of us do fundamentally I mean if you look in the New York Times you will find that all the words are spelled correctly and if a word is spelled incorrectly they'll might they might catch and put an aodm in you know some other time I mean there is a sense that it's not just anything goes however to my chagrin uh in school uh as far as I can tell no grammar is taught I mean when I was a kid we learned subject and object and direct object and indirect object and and present perfect and past perfect and and so forth and so on we learn the names of all sorts of things and I don't think that my kids uh who are now out of high school are out of college but I don't think that they ever learned what a subject or an object was or a verb even well maybe maybe a verb maybe they know what a noun and a verb is I mean probably they do but that's cuz I told them not because you know and I it is it is very disturbing to me and I fully agree with
而且我认为我们大多数人在根本上都是这么想的。我是说，你去看《纽约时报》，你会发现所有的词都拼写正确；如果有个词拼错了，他们可能会，可能会发现并在，你知道的，过些时候登个更正。我是说，确实有一种感觉是：并不是怎么来都行。然而，让我懊恼的是，呃，在学校里，呃，据我所知，根本没人教语法。我是说，我小时候我们要学主语和宾语，直接宾语和间接宾语，还有，还有现在完成时和过去完成时，等等等等，我们学了各种各样东西的名称。而我不认为我的孩子——呃，他们现在已经高中毕业了，其实是大学毕业了——但我不认为他们曾经学过什么是主语、什么是宾语，甚至什么是动词。嗯，也许，也许动词还行，也许他们知道什么是名词、什么是动词。我是说，他们大概是知道的，但那是因为我告诉他们的，而不是因为，你知道的。而我，这，这让我非常不安，我完全同意
79:02
you I'm in your camp but I don't know how to do it other than to be a try to be an example and write books that sound fairly literate and to use to use language well and to encourage the use of good language I'm teaching a course next semester called writing structured verse and I'm going to you know be very strict with my students about how they use language and I'm going to talk about their word choices very carefully but that's you know a handful of people how do you affect the entire world I don't know it's I but anyway I agree full with you now yeah inspired by your uh your terrific lecture today we've had a discourse just recently at a fairly high level of sophistication do you think computer systems will ever be able to capable have that kind of discourse there might be a little robot over in the corner who's listening to your lecture and Lumbers up to this microphone like me and asks you a coherent question and it's capable of responding to your answer is that ever going to happen are
你，我和你是一伙的。但我不知道该怎么办，除了尽量以身作则，写出读起来相当有文化教养的书，把语言用好，鼓励大家好好使用语言。下学期我要开一门课叫《结构化诗歌写作》，我打算，你知道的，对学生在语言使用上要求非常严格，我还会非常仔细地跟他们讨论他们的用词选择。但那也就是，你知道的，一小撮人而已。你怎么去影响整个世界呢？我不知道，这……但总之，我完全同意你。好的，是的，受你今天那场精彩讲座的启发——我们刚刚进行了一场相当高水准、相当精微的对谈。你觉得计算机系统有朝一日会有能力进行那样的对谈吗？会不会角落里有个小机器人，它听着你的讲座，然后像我这样慢吞吞地走到这个麦克风前，向你提出一个条理清晰的问题，而且还能对你的回答做出回应？这种事会发生吗？对此，我，我不敢说自己知道这个问题的答案。我
80:09
there to that I I don't claim to know the answer to that question I have thought about it a great deal and I uh it it you know the idea that it might happen quickly within the next uh 50 years or something like that um as advocated by people like Ray KW and others um first of all I think it's not likely it's implausible but secondly it it disturbs me it it it bothers me I on the other hand I can see no reason that it is is impossible and and I even at one time even in a certain sense kind of bought into the line of Hans morac who is a very similar to Rikers while when he wrote a book I don't remember whether it was his book mind children or another book but it doesn't matter he has this idea that we uh collectively are going to give rise to machines that will be more intelligent and more creative and more empathetic hopefully than we are and he says what could be nobler what could be what what role could that could we play that would be more noble than that you know to give rise to what he
对此思考了很多，而，呃，它，它，你知道的，说它可能很快就会发生，在接下来的，呃，五十年之内之类的——就像雷·库兹韦尔（Ray Kurzweil）那些人所主张的那样——嗯，首先我认为这不太可能，这不合情理；但其次，它让我不安，它，它让我心里发毛。而另一方面，我看不出有任何理由说明这是不可能的。而且我甚至曾经有一段时间，在某种意义上还挺认同汉斯·莫拉维克（Hans Moravec）的那套说法的，他和库兹韦尔非常相似。当他写过一本书——我不记得是他那本《心智孩童》（Mind Children）还是另一本了，不过这不重要——他有这么一个想法：我们，呃，作为一个整体，将会催生出比我们更智能、更有创造力、但愿也更有同理心的机器。他说，还有什么能比这更高尚呢？还有什么，什么样的角色能我们扮演的角色，那会比这更崇高，你知道，就是催生他所说的“心智之子”（mind children），只要
12问答：公共范畴与私人范畴
81:24
calls mind children and um as long as it's way off in the future beyond my Horizon it's okay with me um but if it starts to seem like you know my own kids are going to be sort of um I don't know outmoded obsolete uh it it frightens me and it it really disturbs me um but I don't see why it wouldn't be possible for that to happen along those lines have you seen the movie her no I've heard about it I have not seen that now I must admit that I was told that we're supposed to stop at 6:30 I will take uh let let me be nice if I can and take two more questions okay just one here and one there all right and we'll try um I have kind of a big category of questions but I'll keep them um can you talk about the sort of semantic drift of categories over time slash the sorry did was that accidental um no sort of maybe a little bit it came up but I figured I'd go with it um the other part of that is the difference between if there is any such thing platonic categories versus the category that any particular person or set of people has
这事发生在很遥远的未来，超出我的视野范围，那我是可以接受的，但如果开始觉得，你知道，我自己的孩子会变得有点，嗯，我说不好，过时了、被淘汰了，那就让我害怕，真的让我很不安，但是我看不出为什么这种事不可能沿着那个方向发生。你看过电影《她》吗？没有，我听说过，但我没看过。那么我得承认，别人告诉我我们应该在六点半结束，我就再接，让我尽量友善一点，再接两个问题吧，好，这边一个、那边一个，好的，我们试试看。嗯，我的问题算是个很大的范畴，但我会说简短点。你能不能谈谈范畴随时间发生的那种语义漂移，斜杠——抱歉，那是无意的吗？嗯，不算，也许有一点点吧，它自己冒出来了，但我想那就顺着说下去。另外一部分是，两者之间的区别——如果真有这么一回事的话——柏拉图式的范畴，和任何一个特定的人或一群人在某一时刻
82:45
in their mind at any given time well yeah each of us is a you know we house in our minds many many categories like I you know name dropping and brain storing and and vicious circle and stuff that that that our our culture gives us and all these other things you know bait and switch and tail wagging the dog not to mention and so forth we all have lots of those that were given in those but then we all have our own private repertoire of categories like I had the category uh without even knowing that it was a category of Dany at the Grand Canyon which then became sort of more recognized when Dick reached down to pick up the bottle cap and it became started to re become very clear but I have you know millions of memories in my mind that are evocable or Retreat let's say let me find a different word um triggerable retrievable excitable I don't know what the word is but you know where a new event happens and it reminds me of that old event and those two are then sort of superimposed so I have my
头脑中所拥有的范畴。嗯，是的，我们每个人，你知道，我们脑子里都装着许许多多的范畴，比如我你知道，“抬出名人来抬高自己”、“头脑风暴”、“恶性循环”这些，都是我们的文化给我们的，还有所有这些别的东西，你知道，“先诱后换”、“尾巴摇狗（本末倒置）”、“更不用说”等等等等，我们每个人都有一大堆这类别人给我们的范畴，但除此之外，我们每个人还有自己私人的范畴库，比如我就有那个范畴，呃，我当时甚至都不知道它是个范畴——“丹尼在大峡谷”，后来当迪克弯下腰去捡那个瓶盖时，它才变得更容易被辨认出来，才开始重新变得非常清晰。但你知道，我脑子里有上百万条记忆，是可以被唤起的，或者说“撤退”——让我换个词吧，嗯，可触发的、可提取的、可激发的，我也不知道该用哪个词，但你知道，就是当一件新的事情发生时，它让我想起那件旧事，然后这两者就有点叠加在一起了。所以我有一套属于我自己、独一无二的范畴。我是说，呃，我记得，这里有
83:52
own personal set of categories that is unique to me I mean uh I remember here's an example I remember I was in some airport probably in I think it was Charlotte and I was waiting in for a plane and I was sitting around in the waiting area and there a mouse started running around and people saw it and some guy got up with cowboy boots and started running around trying to stomp on the mouse and it was an unforgettable scene of this guy running around the the thing you know that's a personal memory mem Mor that I have now um you don't have it but I've just conveyed it to you but but I mean each of us has memories of weird events that are unique and that you know they our own private category repertoire um and and that's we're made of of of that combination of social or public categories and private categories is that answer the second question yeah what answer the second question okay all right all right thank you yeah last um so in speaking of Proverbs as categories I thought of two movies that uh show what I can only
一个例子：我记得我在某个机场，大概是，我想是夏洛特吧，我在等飞机，坐在候机区里，然后有一只老鼠开始到处乱窜，人们看见了，有个穿牛仔靴的家伙站了起来，开始追着跑，想踩死那只老鼠，那真是个难忘的场面，这个人到处乱跑，追着那个东西，你知道，那是我现在拥有的一段私人记忆。嗯，你没有这段记忆，但我刚刚把它传达给你了，不过我的意思是，我们每个人都有一些关于奇怪事件的、独一无二的记忆，你知道，它们构成了我们自己私人的范畴库。嗯，而我们就是由这种社会性的、公共的范畴和私人范畴的组合构成的。这算是回答了第二个问题吗？是的。什么？回答第二个问题了吗？好的，好，好，谢谢你。好，最后一个。嗯，说到把谚语当作范畴，我想到了两部电影，呃，它们展现了一种我觉得在现实生活中
85:05
think must also be a category in real life which is that good people know Proverbs or people who don't know Proverbs are somehow untrustworthy so there's the movie Amy where um amil's friend goes on a walk with her new boyfriend and starts asking him all these Proverbs in French and he's able to explain or say remember that I saw the movie a few months ago I thought it was very funny and I sort of remember that yes so that's that's one and she says it for her it's a proverb that you trust somebody who knows their Proverbs or don't trust somebody who doesn't the other I can think of is um The Thin Blue Line which is um Errol Morris film somebody who is wrongfully uh imprisoned for murder uh and the rural County sheriff is asking the the innocent man all these Proverbs and asking him and the guy understands what they were and it seemed to me although never explicitly said that this County Sheriff had a rule of thumb which is well if he can understand these Proverbs he can't be the you know the crazy person who
肯定也是一种范畴的东西，那就是：好人懂谚语，或者说不懂谚语的人多少有点不可信。所以有《天使爱美丽》这部电影，里面，嗯，艾米莉的朋友和她的新男友一起散步，开始用法语问他各种各样的谚语，而他都能解释出来，或者说——记得吗？我看那部电影是几个月前了，我觉得非常有趣，我大概记得有这么回事。是的，所以那是一个例子，她说，对她来说，这本身就是一条谚语：你可以信任一个懂谚语的人，或者说别信任一个不懂谚语的人。另一部我能想到的是，嗯，《细细的蓝线》，那是，嗯，埃罗尔·莫里斯的片子，讲一个人被冤枉，呃，因谋杀而入狱，而那个乡下县的警长在问这个无辜的人各种谚语，一句句地问他，而这个人都明白那些谚语的意思。在我看来，虽然影片里从没明说，这个县警长有一条经验法则，那就是：如果他能理解这些谚语，那他就不可能是，你知道，那个犯下这桩谋杀案的疯子，就像电影里所描绘的那样。
86:05
committed this murder that was depicted in the movie and that along with the two questions ago about computers and conversation there's a certain type of thinking that you have described artificial intelligence is going in today which doesn't seem to be the same as the type of creativity by analogy learning or thinking that that you you've been well I agree that artificial intelligence today is not very close to anything like that but um but U it's interesting it's an interesting uh notion that knowing Proverbs makes you into a I don't know what it doesn't seem a moral person but I don't know makes you more reliable or trustworthy or something uh I wouldn't think that's the case but I I would I would think that knowing how to apply Proverbs that is understanding Proverbs and using them fluently it is true that I'm impressed when people do that I think it's charming and it shows a certain kind of conceptual depth that I that pleases me if if you know if somebody says in a situation where they're avoiding
再加上两个问题之前关于计算机和对话的那个问题——有那么一类思维方式，就是你所描述的今天人工智能正在走的方向，它似乎和你一直在谈的那种通过类比进行创造、学习或思考的方式并不一样。嗯，我同意，今天的人工智能离那样的东西还差得很远。但是，嗯，这挺有意思的，这是个很有意思的想法，就是懂谚语会让你变成一个，我也说不好，看起来倒不像是更有道德的人，但我不知道，让你显得更可靠或更值得信任之类的。呃，我不觉得是这样，但我确实会认为，懂得如何运用谚语，也就是理解谚语并且能流利地使用它们——确实，当人们做到这一点时我会觉得很佩服，我觉得那很有魅力，它显示出某种概念上的深度，这让我感到愉快。如果，你知道，如果有人在一个情境中，为了避开曾经给他们带来过麻烦的
87:13
something that once caused them some trouble they say once burn twice shy I I there's something I like about it it makes me feel good so um I can relate to that and I I I I like these these the ability to go back to the history of the language and kind of draw on wisdom from the past and use it in current situations I think that's that's very good and it shows that you're not just a person of the moment but you're a person that is a little bit more rooted in the past and I think that's good but I don't know that I don't think it makes you more moral have you met a have you met a person who does not understand proverb other than a non-native speaker well I've been I've read that often very autistic people may not I don't know if that's true but I've read that you know I heard of complaint out there so I don't know just I just just just heard that yeah even though I the questions are over but um it may not be the issue of somebody knowing a your PR it's a way of you categorizing people people similar
事情，说了一句“一朝被蛇咬，十年怕井绳”，我，我就是喜欢这种表达，它让我感觉很好。所以，嗯，我能理解那一点。而且我，我很喜欢这种能力，就是能回到语言的历史中去，从过去的智慧中汲取养分，把它用在当下的情境里，我觉得那非常好，它表明你不只是一个活在当下的人，而是一个多少更扎根于过去的人，我觉得那很好。但我不认为，我不认为那会让你更有道德。你有没有遇到过——你有没有遇到过一个听不懂谚语的人，除了非母语者之外？嗯，我曾经，我读到过说自闭症程度很重的人常常可能听不懂，我不知道这是不是真的，但我读到过，你知道，我也听到过有人抱怨这个说法，所以我也不确定，我只是，只是听说过而已。是啊，虽然提问环节已经结束了，但是，嗯，问题也许不在于某人懂不懂谚语，而是这成了你给人分类的一种方式，把人分成和你相似的那一类。是的，对，对，肯定是这样。是啊，如果
88:27
to you yes yeah yeah for sure yeah if people are like me I I guess the more they're like me the more I tend to trust them that's probably true yeah well um want to thank Professor hop for a very stimulating lecture um this is actually his second appearance you're 1992 um and I really think we should have you back more often well thank you well that's yeah 22 years from now I'll be I'll be getting up there anyway thank
人们和我很像，我想他们越像我，我就越倾向于信任他们，这大概是真的。是啊。好的，嗯，我想感谢霍夫施塔特教授带来这场非常有启发性的讲座。嗯，这其实是他第二次来，上一次是1992年。嗯，我真心觉得我们应该更常请您回来。好的，谢谢。嗯，那，是啊，22年之后我就，我那时候年纪就相当大了。总之，谢谢。
视频总结 · 一句话概括与核心要点
一句话概括
Hofstadter 主张"范畴化即类比"是认知的核心：范畴不限于名词，而是从单例记忆出发、经类比不断模糊扩张的渐变集合，动词、连词、冠词、语气词、谚语乃至无标签的私人记忆都是范畴。
核心要点
- 数理逻辑对认知科学的遗毒：19 世纪末的数理逻辑把"真值"和"推理"放在首位，其残留至今可见于谓词演算表示观念等做法；Hofstadter 认为这对理解思维本身"极不恰当"。他自述年轻时被逻辑教科书"but 只是带点烟熏味的 and"误导，花了数十年才摆脱。
- 范畴成员资格是渐变而非是非题：沿袭 Wittgenstein 与 Eleanor Rosch，范畴有核心成员、边缘成员、勉强出圈者；他的口号"你什么都数不了"（you can't count anything）——被问"会几门语言"时自答"π 门"，因为掌握程度是模糊分数，且"语言"本身也是政治定义的（荷兰语本可算德语方言，中国诸多"方言"实为语言）。
- 动词是范畴，儿童"误用"其实是合理归类：幼儿说"我把香蕉脱衣服了（undressed）"、"我想吃点水"（意大利语场景）、"公交车吃汽油吗"、"你今天要去骂（scold）邻居吗"——每个都是把整个情境与词汇中最可及的标签做类比匹配，不宜简单判为错误。中文里"落"有约七个动词（叶落、股价跌、物体掉落、建筑倒塌、人摔倒……），说明语言切分范畴的方式极其微妙但边界并不精确。
- 连词也命名范畴，且在"话语空间"中运作：新兴连词 slash（"files slash prints"、"avocado dip slash salsa"）是近 50–60 年内诞生的范畴。but 与 and 的区别不在真值而在话语情境："生于亚利桑那但长于德州"用 but 就很怪，换成"长于日本"才是 but 情境。nonetheless / however / whereas / that being said 各自唤起不同情境，"光波是横波，nonetheless 声波是纵波"明显不通，却无人能给出定义——全靠耳濡目染类比习得。
- 连冠词 the 也是范畴选择："go to school"（上学）vs "go to the school"（去学校那个地点）；家长对 PTA 说"go to the school"，对孩子说"go to school to meet your friends"，指路时必用 the。选择由不可言说的细微认知动作完成，对汉语母语者极难。
- 语气词与网络梗是带语调的范畴："Hello?"（讽刺你在说什么傻话）、法语句尾的 quoi、《麦田里的守望者》里霍尔顿的 "and all"、法语 normalement（意为"若无意外"而非"通常"）——学习者某天发现这些词"不请自来地"从嘴里冒出，就是类比机制习得完成的标志。
- 谚语和习语是长标签范畴："一石二鸟"（他这趟兼访 Google 与斯坦福）、"马跑了才关厩门"、"尾巴摇狗"、"左手不知右手在干什么"。归类时并非真的类比到手或狗，而是类比到过去听过该短语的典型实例——14 岁时初次听到并印象深刻的那一幕种下种子，此后类比不断扩张。法语没有"尾巴摇狗"对应习语，他不得不给合著者 Emmanuel Sander 举了一堆例子。
- 无标签范畴从单例诞生——"Danny 在大峡谷"：儿子 1 岁 3 个月时坐在大峡谷边看蚂蚁；16 年后在埃及卡纳克神庙，朋友 Dick 弯腰捡瓶盖收藏，这段记忆被自动唤起（神庙↔峡谷，Dick↔Danny，瓶盖↔蚂蚁）。此刻他意识到单例记忆本来就是"只有一个成员的范畴"，随后它扩展到"蚊子叮爱因斯坦"、"在巴黎不去卢浮宫而闷头写书"，最终泛化为"专注于自己能关注的小事而忽略旁人眼中的珍宝"。
- 范畴化与类比是同一心理过程的两面：这是与 Sander 合著《Surfaces and Essences》的核心论题。类比每秒发生多次，而非高级推理者偶尔动用的工具。他给"智能"的定义：迅速抓住情境本质的能力，即迅速做出有力类比与归类；并在《我是个怪圈》中主张思维＝意识。
- 人类独有的是范畴的滚雪球式积累：他列出一长串新范畴（恶性循环、自我实现的预言、因出名而出名、上传/下载、病毒视频、数据挖掘、极限跑、快速约会、多任务、头脑风暴、声音片段、眼睛糖果、风寒指数、外包、替身母亲、最坏情形……），认为动物虽能扩展范畴库，却无法像人类这样从生到死不断累积。
结论与值得注意的细节
- 结论：思维的基本单元不是命题真值，而是"情境→标签"的类比归类；每一次选词（包括 but、the、slash、emoji）都是一次范畴判断，真假二值逻辑无法刻画这种渐变性。
- 问答环节：他解释"话语空间"是交流事件发生的抽象空间，"segue"与"but"都是其中的事件；坦言这与数学范畴论毫无关系。
- 关于 AI：他认为 50 年内出现能进行此类对话的机器"不太可能"，但找不到不可能的理由；Moravec 的"心智孩子"设想在遥远未来可接受，若威胁到自己孩子一代则令他不安。当时尚未看过电影《她》。
- 语言规范：他是《美国传统词典》用法委员会成员，自认"规定派"，对学校不教语法感到痛心，写书和授课时坚持严谨用词，自己打字只用一根手指且从不用缩写——但已接受 :) ;) :( 三个表情符号并强调它们分属不同范畴。
- 一处自嘲：《哥德尔、埃舍尔、巴赫》并非全在斯坦福写成，前两稿在俄勒冈完成；他 1992 年曾来斯坦福讲过一次，本次为第二次。
- 提问者指出"at the end of the day"带政治色彩、网络语"because 某名词"的新用法，他均视为范畴在文化中快速生成的实例。
核心句型 · 10
1. X is at the core of Y
“The action of categorization is at the core of cognition”
表达「X 是 Y 的核心」。学术演讲中提出核心主张的标准句式，可替换 lies at the heart of。仿写：Trust is at the core of any collaboration.
2. take … with a grain of salt
“You have to kind of take it with a grain of salt”
「对……持保留态度」，用于提醒听者不要照字面全信。适合口语与非正式写作。仿写：Take online reviews with a grain of salt.
3. not just … but …
“Analogies are not just tools for sophisticated reasoners … analogy making is happening many times per second”
否定常见认知再给出更强主张，制造反差。仿写：Reading is not just decoding words but building a model of the writer's mind.
4. It took me + 时间 + to overcome …
“It took me decades to overcome that prejudice”
承认自己曾持错误观点并花很长时间纠正，增加可信度。仿写：It took me years to overcome the habit of over-planning.
5. I'm not trying to say …, I'm just trying to say …
“I'm not trying to say that the boundaries are precise I'm just trying to say that they're elusive”
先排除误读再给出精确主张，是澄清立场的高频结构。仿写：I'm not saying the plan is bad, I'm just saying it's premature.
6. no X will tell you, no Y will tell you, nothing will tell you
“No dictionary will tell you no native speaker will tell you no course will tell you nothing will tell you”
排比递进式否定，强调某种知识只能靠自己领悟。仿写时保持三到四项并以 nothing 收尾。
7. out of nowhere, spontaneously, …
“All of a sudden out of nowhere spontaneously my memory came of Danny at the Grand Canyon”
堆叠副词描写念头突然浮现，叙事性强。仿写：Out of nowhere, the solution came to me.
8. X and Y are flip sides of the same …
“Categorization and analogy making are flip sides of the very same mental process”
「一体两面」，用于论证两个概念本质相同。仿写：Curiosity and doubt are flip sides of the same intellectual habit.
9. to my chagrin, …
“To my chagrin in school as far as I can tell no grammar is taught”
「令我懊恼的是」，正式书面语中表达失望的插入语。仿写：To my chagrin, the deadline had already passed.
10. I can see no reason that it is impossible
“I can see no reason that it is impossible”
谨慎表态：不断言会发生，但否认其不可能。适合讨论不确定前景。仿写：I see no reason why this approach couldn't scale.
生词精讲 · 130 · 按出现顺序
stomping grounds
phr.
0:01
常去的地方，熟悉的老地盘（口语）
Bittersweet
/ˌbɪtərˈswiːt/
adj.
0:01
苦乐参半的，百感交集的
in the driver's seat
phr.
1:22
处于主导/控制地位
residues
/ˈrɛzɪduːz/
n.
1:22
残余，残留物（此处指逻辑传统的残余影响）
predicate calculus
n.
2:51
谓词演算（形式逻辑系统）
connotations
/ˌkɑːnəˈteɪʃənz/
n.
2:51
内涵，言外之意
Merit
/ˈmɛrɪt/
v.
2:51
值得，配得上
admit of
phr.
2:51
容许，允许有（正式用法，如 admit of no exception）
peripheral
/pəˈrɪfərəl/
adj.
2:51
边缘的，次要的
gradation
/ɡreɪˈdeɪʃən/
n.
2:51
渐变，层次
take it with a grain of salt
phr.
4:11
对……持保留态度，打折扣地听
dubious
/ˈduːbiəs/
adj.
4:11
可疑的，靠不住的
Prelude
/ˈprɛluːd/
n.
5:30
前奏，序曲
theme songs
n.
5:30
主题曲；引申为反复强调的核心主张
reeled out
phr.
6:50
（像放线一样）搬出来、拿出来使用
thesis
/ˈθiːsɪs/
n.
6:50
论点，主张
well-meaning
/ˌwɛlˈmiːnɪŋ/
adj.
6:50
出于好意的
vacuous
/ˈvækjuəs/
adj.
7:59
空洞的，无内容的
caught off guard
phr.
7:59
措手不及
transcendental number
n.
7:59
超越数（如π、e）
quantify
/ˈkwɑːntɪfaɪ/
v.
9:10
量化
whatsoever
/ˌwʌtsoʊˈɛvər/
adv.
9:10
丝毫（用于否定句后加强语气）
evoke
/ɪˈvoʊk/
v.
10:25
唤起，引起（本讲核心动词：情境唤起词语）
on the fringes
phr.
13:16
在边缘
blurted it out
phr.
13:16
脱口而出
groping for
phr.
13:16
摸索着寻找（词语、答案）
scold
/skoʊld/
v.
14:28
责骂，训斥
bogged down
phr.
14:28
陷入，困于（细节）
subtle
/ˈsʌtəl/
adj.
17:11
微妙的，精细的
toppling over
phr.
18:26
倒塌，倾倒
carved up
phr.
18:26
切分，划分
elusive
/ɪˈluːsɪv/
adj.
18:26
难以捉摸的
halos
/ˈheɪloʊz/
n.
18:26
光晕，光环
conjunctions
/kənˈdʒʌŋkʃənz/
n.
19:38
连词
frame of mind
phr.
19:38
心态，思路
bimbo
/ˈbɪmboʊ/
n.
20:56
（贬）漂亮但无脑的女子，花瓶
period piece
n.
22:17
时代剧，历史题材作品
overwhelmed
/ˌoʊvərˈwɛlmd/
adj.
22:17
应接不暇的，被淹没的
aficionado
/əˌfɪʃəˈnɑːdoʊ/
n.
23:33
狂热爱好者（原文口误作 efficient a）
logical connectives
n.
23:33
逻辑联结词（and, or, not, if-then）
front and center
phr.
23:33
处于最显眼、最重要的位置
fell for
phr.
23:33
上当，信以为真
prejudice
/ˈprɛdʒədɪs/
n.
24:52
偏见，成见
flow
/floʊ/
v.
24:52
（文字）流畅，通顺
discourse
/ˈdɪskɔːrs/
n.
26:10
话语，言谈
dime a dozen
phr.
27:35
多得不值钱，稀松平常
shaded
/ˈʃeɪdɪd/
adj.
27:35
有深浅层次的，渐变的
judgment calls
n.
28:52
凭判断做的决定（无客观标准）
ducked out
phr.
28:52
溜走，临时退出
transverse
/trænzˈvɜːrs/
adj.
30:08
横向的；横波
longitudinal
/ˌlɑːndʒəˈtuːdənəl/
adj.
30:08
纵向的；纵波
does not compute
phr.
30:08
（口语）说不通，转不过弯
by osmosis
phr.
30:08
耳濡目染地，潜移默化地
pin down
phr.
31:40
确切说明，钉住
ardor
/ˈɑːrdər/
n.
33:08
热情，热忱
Pizzaz
/pɪˈzæz/
n.
33:08
劲头，活力，派头（通常拼作 pizzazz）
savoring
/ˈseɪvərɪŋ/
v.
33:08
细细品味
peppering
/ˈpɛpərɪŋ/
v.
33:08
（说话中）不断夹杂、点缀
dead on
phr.
34:24
完全正确，一针见血
hitch
/hɪtʃ/
n.
36:58
小故障，岔子
catch on to
phr.
36:58
领会，弄懂
unbidden
/ʌnˈbɪdən/
adj.
38:19
不召自来的，自发的
provokes
/prəˈvoʊks/
v.
39:36
激发（思考）
interjections
/ˌɪntərˈdʒɛkʃənz/
n.
43:25
感叹词
memes
/miːmz/
n.
43:25
模因，文化传播单元
intonation
/ˌɪntəˈneɪʃən/
n.
43:25
语调
drill into your head
phr.
44:55
反复灌输，敲进脑子
put my finger on
phr.
46:24
确切指出，说清楚
kill two birds with one stone
phr.
46:24
一石二鸟，一举两得
Proverbs
/ˈprɑːvɜːrbz/
n.
47:48
谚语
once burned twice shy
phr.
47:48
一朝被蛇咬，十年怕井绳
put the cart in front of the horse
phr.
49:20
本末倒置
tail is wagging the dog
phr.
49:20
尾巴摇狗；次要部分反客为主
inordinately
/ɪnˈɔːrdənətli/
adv.
49:20
过度地，不成比例地
canonical
/kəˈnɑːnɪkəl/
adj.
50:41
典范的，标准的
a whole host of
phr.
50:41
一大批，大量
handed to you on a silver platter
phr.
51:54
轻易得到，拱手送上
idiomatic
/ˌɪdiəˈmætɪk/
adj.
51:54
惯用的，地道的
cross-legged
/ˌkrɔːsˈlɛɡɪd/
adj.
53:17
盘腿的
Chasm
/ˈkæzəm/
n.
53:17
深渊，裂谷
retina
/ˈrɛtɪnə/
n.
54:37
视网膜
superimposed
/ˌsuːpərɪmˈpoʊzd/
adj.
57:12
叠加的，重叠的
self-evident
/ˌsɛlfˈɛvɪdənt/
adj.
57:12
不言而喻的
gems
/dʒɛmz/
n.
58:27
珍宝，精华
flip sides
n.
59:34
一体两面，另一面
type faces
n.
59:34
字体（typefaces）
stocked
/stɑːkt/
v.
61:01
储存，积累
self-fulfilling prophecy
n.
62:28
自我实现的预言
backlash
/ˈbæklæʃ/
n.
62:28
强烈反弹，反对浪潮
Hail Mary pass
n.
62:28
（橄榄球）孤注一掷的长传；引申为绝望中的最后一搏
name dropping
n.
62:28
抬出名人来抬高自己
sound bite
n.
62:28
（媒体）金句片段
Trophy Wife
n.
63:58
花瓶妻子，作为炫耀资本的妻子
rejoice in
phr.
63:58
为……而欢欣
astounding
/əˈstaʊndɪŋ/
adj.
63:58
令人震惊的
repertoire
/ˈrɛpərtwɑːr/
n.
63:58
全部技能/曲目；此处指范畴库
snowballing
/ˈsnoʊbɔːlɪŋ/
v.
63:58
滚雪球式增长
stimulating
/ˈstɪmjəleɪtɪŋ/
adj.
65:16
有启发性的
segue
/ˈsɛɡweɪ/
v./n.
66:22
（话题、音乐）自然过渡，承转
truth preserving
adj.
67:33
保真的（逻辑推理从真前提导出真结论）
seamless
/ˈsiːmləs/
adj.
67:33
无缝的
catchphrase
/ˈkætʃfreɪz/
n.
68:50
口头禅，流行语
at the end of the day
phr.
69:59
说到底，归根结底
undertone
/ˈʌndərtoʊn/
n.
69:59
潜台词，弦外之音
contentious
/kənˈtɛnʃəs/
adj.
71:14
有争议的
On Target
phr.
72:35
切中要害，准确
indistinguishable
/ˌɪndɪˈstɪŋɡwɪʃəbəl/
adj.
72:35
无法区分的
emoticons
/ɪˈmoʊtɪkɑːnz/
n.
73:53
表情符号
make a point of
phr.
75:12
刻意做某事，特意坚持
go with the flow
phr.
76:35
随波逐流，顺其自然
descriptive
/dɪˈskrɪptɪv/
adj.
76:35
描写主义的（语言学：只记录实际用法不作规范）
prescriptive
/prɪˈskrɪptɪv/
adj.
77:50
规定主义的（主张语言有正确规范）
anything goes
phr.
77:50
怎么都行，百无禁忌
to my chagrin
phr.
77:50
令我懊恼的是（chagrin /ʃəˈɡrɪn/）
literate
/ˈlɪtərət/
adj.
79:02
有文化修养的
Lumbers up
phr.
79:02
笨重地走过来
coherent
/koʊˈhɪrənt/
adj.
79:02
条理清晰的
implausible
/ɪmˈplɔːzəbəl/
adj.
80:09
不合情理的，难以置信的
bought into
phr.
80:09
接受、认同（某种说法）
empathetic
/ˌɛmpəˈθɛtɪk/
adj.
80:09
有同理心的
outmoded
/ˌaʊtˈmoʊdɪd/
adj.
81:24
过时的
semantic drift
n.
81:24
语义漂移（词义随时间的变化）
platonic
/pləˈtɑːnɪk/
adj.
81:24
柏拉图式的（此处指理念世界中的理想范畴）
bait and switch
phr.
82:45
先诱后换（用低价引客再推销高价品）
not to mention
phr.
82:45
更不用说
stomp on
phr.
83:52
用脚猛踩
wrongfully
/ˈrɔːŋfəli/
adv.
85:05
不公正地，冤枉地
rule of thumb
phr.
85:05
经验法则
draw on
phr.
87:13
利用，汲取
rooted in
phr.
87:13
扎根于
理解自测 · 11 题 · 是真懂了，还是以为自己懂
1. 侯世达为什么说自己是「π语者」（pi-lingual）？
这是他对「你会几种语言」这个问题的幽默回答，用来说明「什么都数不清」的论点。他解释说，各种语言掌握程度不同、随时间变化，加起来是模糊的分数，大约得三——π既谐音 poly（多），又是无理数，暗示语言能力无法整数化。他进一步指出连「什么算一种语言」都模糊（荷兰语与德语、中国的「方言」），所以这类看似合理的计数问题在细看之下没有意义。这出现在讲座第二部分「什么都数不清」。
2. 小女孩说「我把香蕉脱衣服了」，侯世达如何评价这个用法？
他认为这不应被称为错误。理由是：孩子的词汇库里「脱衣服」是一个高度可用的标签，而它与剥香蕉的情境匹配得相当合理，这正是范畴通过类比向外扩展的自然过程。他还补充「知道一个词」本身是程度问题——她可能只听过 peel 一两次，因此说她「应该用 peel」并无坚实依据。类似例子还有儿子在意大利语里说「吃水」。这些出现在「动词也是范畴」一节。
3. 「丹尼在大峡谷」这个范畴是如何诞生的？
1岁3个月的儿子丹尼在大峡谷边盘腿看蚂蚁，父亲觉得反讽但只当作一段记忆存下。16年后在埃及卡纳克神庙，成年朋友迪克在巨柱之间弯腰捡瓶盖，这段旧记忆自发浮现。侯世达指出对应关系：巨柱↔大峡谷、迪克↔丹尼、瓶盖↔蚂蚁。两个事件被无意识叠加的瞬间，单例记忆就变成了有两个成员的范畴，随后不断扩展，最终抽象为「专注于自己在意的小事而忽略他人眼中的珍宝」。
4. 为什么数理逻辑把 but 当作 and 的同义词？侯世达如何反驳？
在真值表上，「A but B」与「A and B」为真的条件完全相同，所以逻辑教材把 but 说成「带点味道的 and」。侯世达年轻时信了这一说法，花了数十年才摆脱。他的反驳是：语言不是关于真假的，but 命名的是「话语空间」中一种特定情境——前后存在反差或违背预期。他用「生于亚利桑那但长于得州」说明：真值无误，但因两地平常、无反差，母语者一听就觉得别扭，听众的笑声即是证据。
5. 侯世达为什么强调「母语者不知道自己为什么这么说」？这对他的论证有什么作用？
亚当被问为何用 slash 时只能勉强解释，侯世达借此指出：词语选择是自发的，来自无意识的类比——「这个情境像我听过别人用这个词的那些情境」。这一观察支撑了两个核心主张：第一，范畴知识是隐性的，不能靠定义或规则传授（所以 quoi、normalement、and all 都「没有词典会告诉你」）；第二，范畴化就是类比。如果选词是规则应用，就不需要类比；正因为它是模式匹配，才与他「类比是认知核心」的论点一致。
6. 「go to school」和「go to the school」的例子想证明什么？
他要证明连定冠词 the 也是范畴名称。两个短语指向不同情境：前者是作为制度的「上学」，后者是作为地点的「学校」。他进一步展示，同一件事（去学校拿东西）说话人身份不同——父亲对孩子、家长对家长——冠词选择也会变化，且没有绝对正确答案。结论是：the 的取舍由一套微妙的认知判断决定，取决于对象、话语情境与交流关系，这对没有冠词的中文母语者尤其难。
7. 侯世达如何论证范畴化与类比是「同一过程的两面」？
他的推理链是：（1）每个范畴始于一个具体记忆（单例）；（2）新情境之所以被归入该范畴，是因为它「像」那个记忆——这就是类比；（3）「左手不知右手」的例子表明，我们类比的不是真实的手，而是过去听到该短语的各个实例；（4）「丹尼在大峡谷」显示，类比的瞬间（两事件叠加）就是范畴扩展的瞬间。因此，说「A 像 B」（类比）与说「A 属于 B 类」（范畴化）描述的是同一个心理事件，区别只在视角。
8. 侯世达对智能的定义是什么？它与讲座主题有何关系？
他在问答中定义：智能是「迅速抓住一个情境本质的能力」，即快速归类、快速找到有力的类比。这个定义直接把智能还原为讲座的核心机制——范畴化/类比。他还进一步主张思考与意识是同一回事，高质量思考与普通思考的区别只是范畴提取的效率和准确度不同。由此推论，当时的AI之所以「相去甚远」，正是因为它不以类比式的情境本质把握为基础。
9. 「what makes us different from all other animals」——侯世达的答案与传统答案有何不同？
传统答案通常是语言、理性或逻辑推理能力。侯世达承认动物也能获得并扩展范畴，但人类的独特之处在于范畴「滚雪球」式累积：在已有范畴之上不断建构新范畴（如「自我实现的预言」「病毒式视频」），从出生到死亡不停止，且文化整体「靠创造新范畴而存在」。这与他开场对逻辑传统的批评呼应：人类的特殊性不在真值推理，而在无限层叠的范畴生长。
10. 一位描写主义语言学家可能反驳侯世达「规定主义」立场与他的范畴理论自相矛盾。他会如何回应？
反驳的逻辑是：既然范畴边界模糊、由使用者的类比共识决定，就不该有「正确用法」。侯世达的回应可从讲座中推出：第一，模糊不等于没有约束——他反复说母语者「有时会说不能这么说」，边界难捉摸但存在；第二，他承认语言演变（slash、because+名词），只是反对「怎么都行」；第三，规范本身也是范畴共识的产物，《纽约时报》全部拼写正确说明社群确实维护着标准。他会说自己是在共识内部做判断，而非诉诸柏拉图式的绝对规则。
11. 把「范畴始于单例、靠类比扩展」的模型迁移到大语言模型的学习上，这一理论还成立吗？
部分成立，部分存疑。成立之处：LLM 也是从大量实例中归纳出「slash 情境」「but 情境」，不靠显式规则，这与「耳濡目染」的习得方式相似，也符合他「没有课程会告诉你」的描述。存疑之处：侯世达强调范畴始于一个被情感标记的具体记忆（「丹尼在大峡谷」被觉得好笑、「and all」被品味），且私人范畴由个人独特经历构成；LLM 缺乏这种以个人经验为锚点的单例起点。他在问答中已表示当时AI「相去甚远」，若面对今日模型，他可能会追问：模型能否像迪克捡瓶盖那样，让一个尘封16年的私人记忆自发浮现？
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